FIGURE 2.

Pathogens activate inflammatory responses in tubular epithelial cells. PAMPs and DAMPs are compounds existing in various pathogens, which can be filtered through the glomerular filtration barrier, and bind to TLRs expressed on tubular epithelial cells. The binding of PAMPs/DAMPs and TLRs promotes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, TNF-α, and ROS, and simultaneously activates the complement system. PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns; DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns; IL, interleukin; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TLR, Toll-like receptor; TECs, tubular epithelial cells.