Figure 1.

(A) Schematic for the bioavailability of TENMs in vivo. The process was initiated with the formation of a TENMs@protein corona, followed by the transport and transformation of NMs modulated by the protein corona. The oxidation/reduction/dissolution forms derived from TENMs ultimately become bioavailable by their incorporation into biomolecules as cofactors, involving proteins directly, or modulating biological activities as pathway regulators. (B) MoS₂ NMs are bioavailable as molybdenum cofactors (Moco) in enzymes. (a) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of MoS₂@HSA nanocomplexes. (b) Molybdenum chemical forms and ratios in livers, calculated from measurements of molybdenum K-edge X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy. (c) Oxidation of MoS₂ by liver microsomes over time, determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. (d) Increased activities of AOX and XOR in mouse livers due to molybdate participating in the biosynthesis of Moco (e). Adapted with permission from ref. [4]. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature. (C) Biotransformation and bioavailability of SeNPs and arsenic-based NMs (AsNMs). (a) TEM image and dissolution process of SeNPs with incorporation in selenoproteins. Sec, selenocysteine. Adapted with permission from ref. [6]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier Ltd. (b) TEM image of arsenene, apoptosis of APL cells induced by arsenene and oxidation of arsenene in cells measured by Raman spectroscopy. Adapted with permission from ref. [7]. Copyright 2019 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH and Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Nanostructure and target ability against diverse leukaemia cells of As@Fn nanocomplex. Adapted with permission from ref. [8]. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature.