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. 2022 Sep 29;8:110. doi: 10.1038/s41378-022-00391-1

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — The main high voltage was applied to the water. The in-plane extractor was connected to switch 1 to identify the effect of electric concentration at the nozzle tip. A guide ring was connected to switches 2 and 3. Switches 2 and 3 were not connected simultaneously. Switch 2 was connected when switch 1 was disconnected. Switch 3 was connected when switch 1 was connected (the grounded in-plane extractor). The flow rate was controlled using a syringe pump. A DSLR camera or a high-speed camera was used for the visualization of the electrospray