Table 1.

Monitoring in diabetes and considerations for precision monitoring

Monitoring method	Monitored variable	Mode of monitoring	Considerations for precision monitoring
Laboratory analysis	HbA1c Glucose Lipids Markers of inflammation Genetic information	Active	Monitoring of risk-factors for complications
Self-monitored blood glucose	Current glucose level Distribution of glucose values	Active	Dose adaptation Definition of risk groups for acute complications Frequency of required measurements is uncertain
Blinded CGM	Retrospective daily glucose control Distribution of glucose values	Passive	Definition of risk groups for acute complications Glucose patterns Meeting of treatment targets No reactive measurement of glycaemic control Possibility of intermittent use is uncertain
Real-time CGM	Past glucose course Current glucose level Trend in glucose level Distribution of glucose values	Passive/active	Definition of risk groups for acute complications Glucose patterns Meeting of treatment targets Possibility of intermittent use is uncertain
EMA	Mental health (patient-reported outcomes): Stress Mood/Affect Diabetes distress Quality of life Depressive symptoms Diabetes symptoms Fear of hypoglycaemia	Active	Identification of impaired mental health Automated analysis resulting in meaningful variables needed Automated integration with glucose data needed Timing and duration of prompts is uncertain Number of daily prompts is uncertain Use of validated questions from established questionnaires is uncertain
	Self-care behaviour (self-report), eating: Meal size Timing Food choices Portion size Context of eating (e.g. stress eating, boredom) Disordered eating	Active	Effect of lifestyle interventions Motivation for lifestyle interventions Visibility of the effects of different foods on glucose Potential bias by socially desirable responses
	Self-care behaviour (self-report), treatment adherence: Timing of medication (e.g. insulin) No. of medications taken/injections Dosage of medication	Active	Effect of monitoring on adherence Potential bias by socially desirable responses
	Self-care behaviour (self-report), sleep: Sleep-in and wake-up time Sleep quality	Active	Impact of sleep quality on glucose metabolism (vice versa) Mental health and sleep Potential bias by socially desirable responses
Wearable sensor-wristbands	Physical activity: Steps Distance covered Heart rate Intensity Oxygen saturation	Passive	Effect of lifestyle interventions Motivation for lifestyle interventions Visibility of the effects of physical activity on glucose Correspondence to self-report Validity of data is difficult to ascertain Additional device(s) to wear
	Sleep: Sleeping hours Time in non-REM/REM Number of awakenings Breathing	Passive	Identification of sleep problems Objective variables in addition to perceived sleep quality Validity of data is difficult to ascertain Additional device(s) to wear
	Physiological arousal: Heart rate Heart rate variability Heart rhythm	Passive	Objective variables of stress responsiveness Validity of data is difficult to ascertain Additional device(s) to wear
Smart pens, pump data storage, electronic medication caps	Treatment adherence: Timing of medication (e.g. insulin) No. of medications taken/injections Dosage of medication	Passive	Detailed analysis of diabetes management Correspondence to self-report Costs Availability