Figure 2.

Study design. This trial applied a vigorous intensity interval training programme for four weeks preoperatively in patients randomly assigned to the exercise group. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing (CPET) was performed at baseline and repeated four weeks later to assess physical capacity. Blood samples for endothelial progenitor cell (EPC) measurement were collected after each CPET to investigate the acute cellular response to exhaustive exercise, and before the second CPET in order to measure the sustained cellular response to the four-week non-exhaustive exercise programme. Both exercise group and control group had equal representation of patients without reported cardiovascular disease and patients with comorbid disease.