Figure 3.

This figure illustrates the role of lytic and lysogenic phages in the induction and protection of intestinal dysbiosis and inflammation. The lysis of bacteria by lytic phages leads to the release of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) and danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPS) which trigger the release of proinflammatory cytokines leading to intestinal inflammation and dysbiosis. However, phages released from lysed bacteria can bind to the intestinal mucosa and protect against pathobionts. Phages can also cross the mucosal barrier by transcytosis and induce local and systemic immune response. On the contrary, commensal bacteria protect the intestinal mucosa from pathobionts and helps in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and integrity via competition for nutrients with pathobionts, induction of Tregs, IgA. Nevertheless, following stress factors which lead to DNA damage these prophages can become lytic triggering inflammation.