Table 2.
Association between maternal consumption of ultra-processed foods during child rearing period and offspring body weight measures
| Measure | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | Group 4 | Group 5 | P for trend† |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overweight or obesity | ||||||
| No (%) | 458 (11.5) | 438 (11.0) | 501 (12.6) | 480 (12.0) | 594 (14.9) | — |
| Relative risk (95% CI)* | 1 (reference) | 1.00 (0.87 to 1.14) | 1.11 (0.97 to 1.27) | 1.07 (0.92 to 1.23) | 1.26 (1.08 to 1.47) | <0.001 |
| Obesity | ||||||
| No (%) | 164 (3.4) | 181 (3.8) | 171 (3.6) | 210 (4.4) | 272 (5.7) | — |
| Relative risk (95% CI)* | 1 (reference) | 1.1 (0.89 to 1.37) | 1.02 (0.81 to 1.28) | 1.14 (0.9 to 1.44) | 1.35 (1.06 to 1.72) | <0.001 |
| Body mass index percentile | ||||||
| Mean (SD) | 53.6 (27.9) | 54.5 (28.1) | 55.4 (28.0) | 56.3 (28.1) | 58.5 (28.0) | — |
| Mean difference (95% CI)a | 1 (reference) | 0.87 (0.32 to 1.42) | 1.35 (0.7 to 1.99) | 1.59 (0.88 to 2.29) | 2.11 (1.31 to 2.91) | <0.001 |
Ultra-processed food intake categorized into five equal groups.
Relative risk and 95% confidence interval (CI) for overweight or obesity and obesity were estimated by generalized estimating equation and mean difference (95% CI) for BMI was estimated by mixed linear model. All models were adjusted for maternal risk factors (baseline age, race, total energy intake, 2010 Alternative Healthy Eating Index, body mass index, physical activity, smoking, personal history of chronic disease, living status, household income, and spouse’s education) and offspring’s sex, ultra-processed food intake, physical activity, and sedentary time.
Linear trend was tested using standardized maternal ultra-processed food consumption as a continuous variable.