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. 2022 Sep 15;8(3):241–254. doi: 10.3233/BLC-211658

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© 2022 – The authors. Published by IOS Press

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Fig. 2 — Independent and Interactive Effects of Sex-biasing Factors. A proposed mechanism on how sex chromosome effects (SCE), gonadal hormone effects (GHE), the sex epigenome effect (SEE), and other sex biasing factors independently and dependently contribute to drive higher incidence of bladder cancer in males with time. SEE may interact with SCE and GHE to increase bladder cancer risk in males as patients age. Blue, SCE; gray, SEE; red, GHE; purple, interaction between SCE and GHE; white, SEE and other sex biasing effects.