Table 2.

Summary of the included quantitative studies (N=11).

Study, year, and country	Purpose	Age (years)	Sample size, N	LGBTQa sample	Method	Findings	Summary
Bond and Figueroa-Caballero [43], 2016, United States	Understand the relationships among technology, sexual identity, and well-being based on age, gender, geographic location, race, and religion	13 to 19 (mean 16.5, SD 1.3)	570	Gay (45%), bisexual (27%), and lesbian (24%)	Recruitment: from gay-straight alliances and web-based message boards; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Measure of Sexual Identity Exploration and Commitment	Using regression analyses, the study found that LGBb youths spend more time on social media compared with non-LGB youths, with time spent significantly on sexual identity (β=.14; P<.05) and well-being (β=.11; P<.05). Time spent on social media was associated with sexual identity (β=.08; SE 0.02; P<.001) but not directly with well-being (β=.04; SE 0.03; P=.21). Well-being was significantly associated with sexual identity commitment (β=.47; SE 0.08; P<.001).	Social media demonstrated a connection with sexual identity development associated with well-being. LGBTQ youths used social media to understand sexuality and give social support, which may not be as significant offline.
Byron et al [31], 2019, Australia	How Tumblr is used among LGBTQ youths to connect with peers and develop identity and well-being	16 to 34 (mean 24.6)	1304	Homosexual (33.9%); bisexual (24.7%); queer (18%); and pansexual, agender, panromantic, and demisexual (19.8%)	Recruitment: via social media advertisements and flyers to LGBTQ organizations; data collection: semistructured interviews and questionnaires and surveys; measures: 2 nominal questions	Tumblr was the platform that participants most often left (11.7%; excluding Myspace and Tinder). Tumblr was abandoned for several reasons: 34% found it too time-consuming, 30% felt it became a negative space, and 15% found it to have negative health impacts.	Negative experiences were common, with participants describing Tumblr as becoming toxic, although it was useful.
Ceglarek and Ward [44], 2016, United States (Michigan)	Understand LGB use of social media for identity exploration and expression and connecting with LGB communities	18 to 24 (mean 20.23, SD 1.68; LGBTQ participants)	570	Heterosexual (n=446), homosexual (n=68), not sure (n=4), and other (n=21)	Recruitment: from LGBTQ support organizations; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale as well as the Short Scale for Measuring Loneliness in Large Surveys and the Brief Symptom Inventory	Among LGB youths, higher social support on social media was associated with lower levels of loneliness (β=−0.27; P≤.01) and paranoia (β=−0.21; P≤.05) using β coefficients. There were no significant differences for anxiety (β=−0.03; P>.05), depression (β=−0.10; P>.05), hostility (β=−0.04; P>.05), and sensitivity (β=−0.04; P>.05). Learning about sexuality via social media reduced anxiety (β=−0.35; P>.05), hostility (β=−0.32; P≤.05), and paranoia (β=−0.43; P≤.01).	Social media has potential to allow LGBTQ youths to develop identity and, thus, have improved mental health. When seeking identity expressions and social support, the web may provide avenues with reduced stigmatization compared with offline.
Chong et al [45], 2015, China (Hong Kong)	Understand LGB social media use for identity, community monitoring, and support and sense of belonging	Mean 23.3 (SD 6.33)	233	Lesbian (n=86), gay (n=107), and bisexual (n=40)	Recruitment: flyers distributed to LGBTQ organizations and social media; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Inclusion of Community in Self Scale, Mental Health Inventory, Life Satisfaction Scale, and Satisfaction with Life Scale	Using structural equation modeling, sense of belonging among LGB youths was associated with social media use for LGB group membership (β=.22; P<.05). LGB group connection via social media was indirectly associated with improved mental well-being through reduced stigma (β=.27; P<.05). Social media use to enhance LGB connection and reduce stigma affected mental well-being (β=.06 and 0.09; P<.05).	Social media is a vital resource for LGB youths to express sexual or gender identity and social support. Mental health can be improved with positive social media capital.
Craig et al [46], 2021, Canada and United States	Explore benefits of social media among LGBTQ youths and develop the Social Media Benefits Scale	14 to 29 (mean 18.21, SD 3.6)	6178	Pansexual (n=1782), bisexual (n=1602), queer (n=1305), gay (n=970), lesbian (n=968), asexual (n=691), not sure (n=398), cisgender (n=3950), gender nonconforming (n=2168), and transgender (n=909)	Recruitment: flyers displayed on the web on social media and sent to LGBTQ organizations; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Social Media Benefits Scale	Of those who chose Facebook as their favorite platform, 11% reported that it helped them feel loved. Adolescents (aged 14-18 years) were the most likely group, and those aged 19 to 24 years were the second most likely group, to use social media for emotional support and development (F=75.88; P<.001).	Younger youths were more likely to use social media for its benefits, such as social support, connectivity, and information. Youths would commonly connect with LGBTQ individuals or groups and celebrities. Other benefits included improved emotional support and development.
Lucero [29], 2017, Ukraine and United States	Examine whether social media provides LGBTQ youths with a safe space for identity exploration and expression	14 to 17 (mean 16.3)	19	Lesbian (n=3), gay (n=8), bisexual (n=1), queer (n=1), unsure (n=3), and not straight (n=3)	Recruitment: flyers sent to LGBTQ organizations and Facebook; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Social Media Frequency Survey and Facebook Intensity Scale	Three-quarters of Facebook users never or rarely experienced cyberbullying and considered it a safe space for connecting and communicating with others. Over two-thirds of participants reported social media to be a comfortable environment compared with offline.	LGBTQ social media users felt safe to communicate and explore with peers on platforms such as Facebook.
McConnell et al [51], 2018, United States (Chicago)	Examine the relationship between Facebook and LGBTQ youth identity management	19 to 28 (mean 24.13, SD 1.64)	199	Identifying as male (n=77), identifying as female (n=108), transwomen (n=15), transmen (n=3), gay (n=69), lesbian (n=55), bisexual (n=49), heterosexual (n=10), and unsure (n=8)	Recruitment: LGBTQ youths from a longitudinal study; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: adapted Outness Inventory	Participants were grouped into 4 categories of level of identity disclosure on Facebook: cluster 1 (high overall outness), cluster 2 (low overall outness), cluster 3 (less out to family), and cluster 4 (more out to family). Cluster 1 comprised 64% of the participants with high levels of disclosure among family, classmates or colleagues, and others.	LGBTQ youths felt that free self-expression on social media was complicated because of factors relating to identity disclosure. By investigating Facebook accounts, youths were mostly categorized as being of either low or high outness. Some would purposely censor their identity expression to avoid unintentional identity disclosures.
McConnell et al [52], 2017, United States (Chicago)	Examine Facebook use among LGBTQ youths, identity management methods, and effects of outness	Mean 24.02 (SD 1.65)	204	Transgender (n=24), gay (n=59), lesbian (n=49), bisexual (n=42), heterosexual (n=9), and unsure (n=5)	Recruitment: LGBTQ youths from a longitudinal study via email and flyers sent to LGBTQ organizations; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: adapted Outness Inventory, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Brief Symptom Inventory	Over 13% had multiple Facebook accounts, and >42% used privacy settings to limit viewable content for selected friends. Participants reported high outness offline and on Facebook, both positively correlated (r=0.72; P<.001). Facebook outness showed a high positive correlation (r=0.73) and the lowest correlation among friends (r=0.53).	Social media can act as a strategy for identity management, which some users find important. Some LGBTQ youths possessed multiple accounts or platforms where they could differ identity expression according to audience.
McInroy et al [30], 2019, Canada and United States	Explore LGBTQ engagement with web-based and offline communities, activities, and resources	14 to 29 (mean 18.35, SD 3.64)	4009	LGBTQ+ (n=7986), heterosexual (n=58), and cisgender (n=2211)	Recruitment: from LGBTQ organizations and school groups; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: 6-scale questionnaire on activeness, support, and safety in web-based and offline LGBTQ communities	LGBTQ participants would connect more with the LGBTQ community on the web (88%) compared with offline (69%). LGBTQ participants were more engaged (2-tailed t4008=10.12; P<.001) and supported (t4008=26.28; P<.001) and safer (t4008=35.78; P<.001) on the web compared with offline. LGBTQ social media or blogs were used by 87% of the participants, and identity-specific web or YouTube series were used by 79% of the participants.	LGBTQ youths were likely to participate on the web with other LGBTQ people, including social media. Social media was reported to be a safer, more supportive, and more active option compared with offline.
Pellicane et al [55], 2020, United States (Midwest)	Examine relationships between social media acceptance and hostility and their effects on mental health	Mean 19.87	387	Heterosexual (n=326), bisexual (n=40), homosexual (n=7), and other (n=5)	Recruitment: undergraduate psychology students from an electronic database; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Social Media Experiences Questionnaire	There were significant associations between acceptance via social media and reduced symptoms of depression (β=−0.453; P<.001). Higher social media acceptance was also significantly associated with reduced anxiety symptoms (β=−0.343; P<.001). Conversely, hostility on social media was associated with increased symptoms of depression (β=.120; P=.19).	Social media has the benefit of acceptance and support for LGBTQ individuals and can help prevent or reduce anxiety and depression. This pattern was not reflected among the non-LGBTQ population in this study.
Twist et al [59], 2017, United States (Southwest)	Explore LGB experiences of monitoring web-based visibility and relationships	18 to 41 (mean 24.67)	61	Bisexual (n=33) and same-sex orientated (n=28)	Recruitment: undergraduate students; data collection: questionnaires and surveys; measures: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale as well as the Ecological Elements Questionnaire, Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale-IV, and Same-Sexting Practices and Questionnaire	Facebook had high levels of visibility regarding LGB identity, relationship disclosure (32%), gender identity (30%), and sexuality (31%). Almost half (49%) of the participants felt that partner outness on the web was immaterial. Most (70%) reported infrequent negative responses to web-based identity disclosure.	Most participants reported their sexual identity via social media primarily on Facebook. Most participants did not report negative interactions because of their identity disclosure on social media.

^aLGBTQ: lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer.

^bLGB: lesbian, gay, and bisexual.