TABLE 4.

Association between the intakes of the NOVA food classification categories and anthropometric indicators of obesity^1,2 among preschool-aged children (n = 267 participants from 242 families).

NOVA category (% total energy intake)	BMI Z-scores3	Waist circumference (cm)	Body weight (kg)	Fat mass (%)
	(n = 242)	(n = 237)	(n = 263)	(n = 203)
Unprocessed or minimally processed foods4 β (95% CI) P-value	−0.004 (−0.011, 0.002) P = 0.17	−0.03 (−0.05, −0.01) P = 0.01	−0.009 (−0.021, 0.003) P = 0.15	−0.03 (−0.07, 0.01) P = 0.15
Processed culinary ingredients5 β (95% CI) P-value	0.01 (−0.02, 0.04) P = 0.47	0.06 (−0.05, 0.16) P = 0.28	0.05 (0.00, 0.10) P = 0.07	−0.04 (−0.21, 0.13) P = 0.67
Processed foods6 β (95% CI) P-value	0.008 (0.001, 0.015) P = 0.04	0.01 (−0.02, 0.04) P = 0.56	0.009 (−0.007, 0.025) P = 0.27	0.02 (−0.02, 0.07) P = 0.32
Ultra-processed foods7 β (95% CI) P-value	−0.002 (−0.008, 0.004) P = 0.51	0.013 (−0.007, 0.033) P = 0.21	−0.001 (−0.01, 0.01) P = 0.92	0.01 (−0.03, 0.05) P = 0.59

The total sample of children from the GFHS included in this study was n = 267. BMI z-score for 25 participants, waist circumference for 30 participants, body weight for four participants and fat mass (%) data for 64 participants were missing and excluded from regression analyses.

¹Results presented as linear regression coefficients (β) using generalized estimating equations with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and P-values.

²Models adjusted for age (years), sex, annual household income (<$50,000; $50,000–$99,999; $100,000–$149,999; $150,000 or more; Did not disclose), ethnicity [White; Other (including Black, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Latin American, Mixed ethnicity, South Asian, Southeast Asian, and West Asian) or Did not disclose] and parental education for parent models (no postsecondary degree; postsecondary graduate; postgraduate training), or highest level of parental education for child models.

³BMI z-score, calculated per World Health Organization Child Growth Standards, adjusted for age and sex.

⁴Unprocessed and minimally processed foods defined as naturally occurring, whole and fresh foods that undergo no or minimal industrial processing typically to preserve foods and improve palatability. Examples include vegetables, fruits, nuts, eggs, meat, and milk.

⁵Processed culinary ingredients defined as substances that are used in preparation of foods to enhance flavor of meals. Examples include sugars, butter, oils, and salt.

⁶Processed foods defined as foods that undergo some processing by combining minimally processed or unprocessed foods and processed culinary ingredients and often require minimal preparation. Examples include simple breads, cheese, salted nuts, and canned meat.

⁷Ultra-processed foods defined as convenient foods that are a result of industrial formulations typically with five or more ingredients plus additives. Examples include Sugary drinks, chips, sweetened milk products, cereals, flavored yogurts, and packaged dessert.