Table 2.
Summary of the state of the art of EFWSs in terms of sensitivity, signal conversion, and multifunction
| EFWSs | Sensitivity | Signal Conversion Type | Power Supply | Multi-functions | Refs | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Types | Working mechanism | Response time calculation way | Response temperature | Response time | Durability | Tradition | Wireless | External | Self-power | ||
| MF@GOWR | Thermal reduction of GO | Trigger electrical resistance | 300 °C | 33 s | – | Yes | – | Yes, ~ 29 V | – | Hydrophobicity, reversible compressibility | [18] |
| GO/Silicone coatings | Thermal reduction of GO | Light-on State | – | 2 s—3 s | 38 s | Yes | – | Yes, ~ 24 V | – | hydrophobicity | [64] |
| FGO/CNT@WPP | Thermal reduction of GO | Trigger electrical resistance | 500 °C | 7 s | – | Yes | – | Yes, ~ 40 V | – | – | [81] |
| MXene/GO@ Cellulose paper | Thermal reduction of GO | Electrical resistance | 250 °C | 2 s | – | Yes | Yes | Yes | – | – | [66] |
| MXene@GO-PTS film | Thermal reduction of GO | Electrical resistance | 250 °C | 1 s | – | Yes | Yes | Yes | – | – | [116] |
| Go/FC nanocoatings | Thermal reduction of GO | Light-on state | – | 2.4 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | Self-healing | [62] |
| SPI/MSF-g-COOH/CA/GN film | Carbonized carbon layer structure | Light-on state | – | 1 s | 15 s | Yes | – | Yes | – | Flexibility, hydrophobicity | [82] |
| PGO@HN/GF paper | Thermal reduction of GO | Light-on state | 126.9 °C | 2 s | 5 min | Yes | – | Yes | – | Flexibility | [80] |
| Silane-GO paper | Thermal reduction of GO | Light-on state | – | 1.6 s | – | Yes | – | Yes, ~ 6 V | – | Flexibility, acidic/alkaline tolerance | [131] |
| BP-MoS2/GO film | Thermal reduction of GO | Light-on state | – | ~ 1 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | – | [61] |
| APP/GO/silane coatings | Thermal reduction of GO | Electrical resistance | 300 ℃ | 11.2 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | Hydrophobicity | [84] |
| AgNW@Fe3O4 | Semiconductor properties | Electrical resistance | < 100 ºC | 2 s | 15 min | Yes | – | Yes | – | Repeatability | [38] |
| MMT/chitosan/A-CNT aerogel | Semiconductor properties | Light-on state | – | 0.25 s | 40 s | Yes | – | Yes | – | – | [42] |
| CB@KF-PVA-CNT | Semiconductor properties | - | 350 ℃ | 8 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | – | [43] |
| MXene,/PEG film MXene/PVP film | Semiconductor properties | Electrical resistance | Flame | 1.8 s / 1 s | – | Yes | – | Yes, ∼36 V | – | Reusability, hydrophobicity, weather-resistant | [91] |
| PMS | Color change | Color change | 275 °C | 20 s | – | – | – | – | – | – | [57] |
| POSS-Metal films | Color change | Color change | 150 °C | – | – | – | – | – | – | Repeatability | [93] |
| MXene, SMPU | Shape memory | Shape change | Tg of SMPU | 11 s | – | Yes | – | Yes, 5 V | – | Self-cutting, reusability | [92] |
| PCL, Ag layer | Shape memory | Shape change | 45 ºC | 5 s | Yes | Yes | Yes | – | Self-cutting | [95] | |
| PEDOT:PSS/WPU/CNT | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | – | ∼ 0.7 s | – | – | – | Yes | – | Reusability, hydrophobicity | [44] |
| PI@MXene aerogel | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | 225 ℃ | 5 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | Reusability | [35] |
| Ionic liquids [EMIm][TFSI] and [EMIm][Ac] | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | – | – | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | Reusability | [96] |
| MXene, CCS | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | – | 3.8 s | – | Yes | – | Yes | – | Reusability | [39] |
| Ag2Se/AgNW/PVB and CCS/MMT | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | 7.4 s at 100 °C 2.7 s at 200 °C | 2 s | 60 s | Yes | – | – | Yes | Reusability, self-healing | [55] |
| MMT/UPC and MXene | Thermoelectric effect | Voltage change | – | 3.1 s | – | Yes | – | – | Yes | Self-healing, reusability | [67] |
| CA/Fe3O4 NPs, and AgNWs | Thermoelectric/Triboelectric | Voltage change | – | 2 s | – | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Self-healing, reusability, hydrophobicity | [54] |
MF melamine formaldehyde sponge; GOWR graphene oxide wide-ribbon; FGO functionalized graphene oxide; CNTs carbon nanotubes; WPP wood pulp paper; MXene Ti3C2; PTS phenyltrimethoxysilane; FC Functional cellulose; SPI soy protein isolate; MSF-g-COOH sisal cellulose microcrystals; CA Citric acid; GN graphene nanosheets; PGO polydopamine-modified GO; HN hydroxyapatite nanowires; GF glass fiber; BP black phosphorene; MoS2 molybdenum disulfide; APP hybrid ammonium polyphosphate; AgNW silver nanowires; MMT montmorillonite; CB carbon black; PVA polyvinyl alcohol; PEG polyethylene glycol; PVP polyvinyl pyrrolidone; PMS phthalocyanines precursor molecular sensor; POSS polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane; SMPU shape memory polyurethane; PCL poly(ε-caprolactone); PEDOT:PSS poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrenesulfonate; WPU waterborne polyurethane; PI polyimide; [EMIm][Ac]:1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium acetate; [EMIm][TFSI]: 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfony)imide; CCS carboxymethyl chitosan; PVB polyvinyl butyral; UPC 2-ureido-4[1H]-pyrimidinone-containing cellulose; CA calcium alginate; NPs nanoparticles