TABLE 2.
Post‐test results and ANCOVA showing the effect of the 8‐week supervised exercise intervention (exercise) compared with no intervention (controls) in people with post‐COVID‐19 condition
| Variable | Control | Exercise | Group effect | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre | Post | Pre | Post | p | ηp 2 | |
| Number of symptoms (n) | ||||||
| Number of symptoms | 8.7 ± 4.4 | 4.9 ± 3.5 | 7.9 ± 3.6 | 4.0 ± 3.0 | 0.443 | 0.01 |
| Pulmonary function | ||||||
| FVC (L) | 3.6 ± 1.0 | 3.6 ± 1.1 | 3.9 ± 1.1 | 3.8 ± 1.1 | 0.141 | 0.71 |
| %FVC | 94.1 ± 13.8 | 93.6 ± 14.0 | 97.2 ± 13.7 | 98.3 ± 10.4 | 0.186 | 0.06 |
| FEV‐1 (L) | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 1.0 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 0.574 | 0.01 |
| %FEV‐1 | 102.4 ± 17.2 | 103.3 ± 18.9 | 110.7 ± 13.3 | 108.5 ± 16.8 | 0.100 | 0.09 |
| FEV‐1/FVC | 83.6 ± 5.3 | 84.6 ± 6.0 | 87.3 ± 3.1 | 85.4 ± 3.6 | 0.093 | 0.09 |
| FEV25‐75%(L·s−1) | 3.5 ± 1.4 | 3.5 ± 1.3 | 4.2 ± 1.2 | 4.1 ± 1.3 | 0.605 | 0.10 |
| MVV (L) | 97.5 ± 44.0 | 111.1 ± 45.6 | 101.8 ± 38.1 | 120.3 ± 39.4 | 0.945 | <0.01 |
| %MVV | 82.7 ± 23.0 | 90.7 ± 21.4 | 83.9 ± 16.2 | 102.1 ± 15.3 | 0.115 | 0.09 |
| Body composition | ||||||
| Body mass (kg) | 72.0 ± 12.9 | 72.4 ± 12.9 | 72.7 ± 13.6 | 73.7 ± 13.7 | 0.287 | 0.04 |
| Fat mass (%) | 30.4 ± 8.9 | 29.8 ± 8.7 | 31.1 ± 7.8 | 30.1 ± 8.1 | 0.605 | 0.01 |
| Lean body mass (%) | 49.5 ± 10.5 | 49.7 ± 11.7 | 50.3 ± 11.9 | 51.5 ± 11.7 | 0.251 | 0.04 |
| Quality of life and fatigue | ||||||
| SF‐12 (PA) | 37.2 ± 11.0 | 41.2 ± 11.2 | 35.7 ± 11.6 | 47.8 ± 10.6 | 0.024 a | 0.170 |
| SF‐12 (MH) | 39.6 ± 11.5 | 43.5 ± 10.9 | 46.1 ± 12.2 | 49.3 ± 9.7 | 0.444 | 0.02 |
| mMRC | 1.5 ± 1.0 | 0.94 ± 0.93 | 1.3 ± 1.1 | 0.42 ± 0.77 | 0.090 | 0.10 |
| CFQ‐11 (bimodal) | 8.1 ± 2.9 | 6.9 ± 3.8 | 8.1 ± 2.8 | 3.5 ± 3.7 | 0.007 a | 0.23 |
| CFQ‐11 (Likert) | 21.0 ± 7.2 | 18.2 ± 7.3 | 22.8 ± 6.0 | 11.4 ± 8.6 | 0.018 a | 0.15 |
| FSS | 5.2 ± 1.4 | 4.7 ± 1.5 | 5.0 ± 1.4 | 3.4 ± 1.7 | 0.024 a | 0.17 |
| DSQ‐14 | 54.9 ± 20.4 | 44.8 ± 19.6 | 53.1 ± 16.7 | 33.6 ± 13.2 | 0.094 | 0.10 |
| PCSF | 2.5 ± 1.0 | 1.8 ± 1.1 | 2.6 ± 1.1 | 1.1 ± 1.2 | 0.033 a | 0.15 |
| Anxiety and depression | ||||||
| GAD‐7 | 10.2 ± 5.3 | 7.3 ± 4.7 | 7.3 ± 4.2 | 4.7 ± 3.8 | 0.556 | 0.01 |
| PHQ‐9 | 12.7 ± 6.4 | 8.4 ± 4.9 | 10.7 ± 4.9 | 5.0 ± 4.0 | 0.021 a | 0.18 |
| Cardiovascular fitness | ||||||
| VO2max (ml/kg/min) | 36.4 ± 10.1 | 36.1 ± 9.5 | 36.8 ± 10.2 | 38.9 ± 10.8 | 0.035 a | 0.14 |
| Final RPE 6–20 | 15.4 ± 1.0 | 14.7 ± 1.5 | 14.7 ± 1.5 | 11.8 ± 2.5 | 0.003 a | 0.27 |
| Final HR (b·m−1) | 142 ± 17 | 140.3 ± 19.1 | 146 ± 13 | 136.0 ± 12.8 | 0.045 a | 0.13 |
| Muscular strength | ||||||
| Sit‐to‐stand (s) | 8.3 ± 3.5 | 6.6 ± 1.5 | 6.6 ± 2.5 | 5.1 ± 1.2 | 0.009 a | 0.21 |
| Handgrip (kg) | 34.5 ± 9.9 | 34.5 ± 9.9 | 35.7 ± 9.7 | 36.0 ± 9.8 | 0.123 | 0.08 |
| BP‐50% 1RM (m·s−1) | 0.91 ± 0.08 | 0.90 ± 0.10 | 0.94 ± 0.05 | 1.00 ± 0.09 | 0.012 a | 0.20 |
| HSQ‐50% 1RM (m·s−1) | 0.70 ± 0.06 | 0.74 ± 0.09 | 0.71 ± 0.05 | 0.83 ± 0.10 | 0.032 a | 0.17 |
| Leg extension (N) | 401 ± 151 | 421.6 ± 153.6 | 472 ± 183 | 485.3 ± 173.2 | 0.706 | 0.01 |
Note: Data are frequencies and percentages, n (%), or means and standard deviation, M ± SD.
Abbreviations: η p 2 , partial eta squared effect size; FVC, forced ventilatory capacity; FEV, forced expiratory volume; MVV, maximum voluntary ventilation; SF‐12, Short Form Survey; PA, physical activity; MH, mental health; mMRC, Modified Medical Research Council Dyspnea scale; CFQ‐11, Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire; FSS, Fatigue Severity Scale; DSQ‐14, The DePaul Symptom Questionnaire Short Form; PCFS, Post‐COVID‐19 Functional Status scale; GAD‐7, Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale; PHQ‐9, Patient Health Questionnaire; RPE, rate of perceived exertion; HR, heart rate; BP, bench press; HSQ, half squat.
Significant group effect at post‐test (ANCOVA p < 0.05 adjusted for age, sex, duration of symptoms, body mass index [BMI], and baseline scores).