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Probiotic biofilms (usuallu carbohydrate moites) compete with lipopolysaccharides on the surface of Gram-negative bacteria to bind to toll-Like receptor 4 (TLR4) cells, activation of which through MyD88 and TRIF pathways leads to the production of inflammatory factors. EPS from bacterial biofilms also repress the expression of iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) which causes oxidative stress by upregulating NRF2/HO-1.81
