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. 2022 Oct 7;17(10):e0268756. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268756

Table 2. Association of allographic features with educational backgrounds using Pearson’s Chi Square test.

Allographic Features Group χ2 (df) p-value
National school Chinese vernacular school Tamil vernacular school Islamic religious school
Uppercase "A" with three individual strokes 17 (56.7%) 8 (26.7%) 10 (33.3%) 8 (26.7%) 7.937 (3) 0.047*
Uppercase "A" with crossbar exceeding the letter boundary 6 (20.0%) 7 (23.3%) 5 (16.6%) 19 (63.3%) 20.124 (3) < 0.001*
Uppercase "B" with two individual strokes 9 (30.0%) 16 (53.3%) 17 (56.7%) 6 (20.0%) 11.955 (3) 0.008*
Uppercase "B" with no protruding initial stroke 14 (46.7%) 18 (60.0%) 24 (80.0%) 10 (33.3%) 14.411 (3) 0.002*
Uppercase "D" with two individual strokes 12 (40.0%) 23 (76.7%) 21 (70.0%) 10 (33.3%) 16.835 (3) 0.001*
Uppercase "D" with protruding initial stroke 21 (70.0%) 3 (10.0%) 7 (23.3%) 8 (26.7%) 27.768 (3) < 0.001*
Uppercase "H" with commanding stroke written first followed by crossbar and vertical stroke 15 (50.0%) 25 (83.3%) 10 (33.3%) 11 (36.7%) 18.772 (3) < 0.001*
Uppercase "I" written as single stroke (vertical stroke) without upper and lower serif 16 (53.3%) 9 (30.0%) 8 (26.7%) 16 (53.3%) 7.830 (3) 0.050
Uppercase "P" with one continuous stroke 13 (43.3%) 10 (33.3%) 8 (26.7%) 15 (50.0%) 4.089 (3) 0.252
Lowercase "p" with one continuous stroke 16 (53.3%) 12 (40.0%) 9 (30.0%) 25 (83.3%) 19.335 (3) < 0.001*
Uppercase "T" with vertical stroke written first followed by arm 7 (23.3%) 5 (16.6%) 8 (26.7%) 15 (50.0%) 9.156 (3) 0.027*
Lowercase "t" with crossbar written first followed by vertical stroke 0 (0%) 25 (83.3%) 4 (13.3%) 0 (0%) 78.348 (3) < 0.001*
Lowercase "w" with left and right sections apart 10 (33.3%) 20 (66.7%) 13 (43.3%) 22 (73.3%) 12.990 (3) 0.005*
Lowercase "w" with sharp left and right vertices 6 (20.0%) 10 (33.3%) 4 (13.3%) 18 (60.0%) 17.175 (3) 0.001*
Uppercase "X" with right to left diagonal stroke constructed first followed by left to right diagonal stroke 13 (43.3%) 11 (36.7%) 11 (36.7%) 27 (90.0%) 23.893 (3) < 0.001*
Lowercase "x" with right to left diagonal stroke constructed first followed by left to right diagonal stroke 13 (43.3%) 8 (26.7%) 11 (36.7%) 25 (83.3%) 22.289 (3) < 0.001*
Uppercase "Z" with rounded top arm-junction design 17 (56.7%) 8 (26.7%) 9 (30.0%) 11 (36.7%) 6.933 (3) 0.074
Lowercase "z" with rounded top arm-junction design 17 (56.7%) 8 (26.7%) 10 (33.3%) 11 (36.7%) 6.345 (3) 0.096