TABLE 2.
Nanofibrous scaffolds in wound management
| Methods | Materials | Bioactive molecules | Flow rate (ml/h) | Voltage (kV) | Tip‐collector distance (cm) | Fiber diameter | Properties/results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uniaxial electrospinning | PVA/keratin/chitosan | — | 0.4 | 16 | 10 | 120–151 nm | Nanofibrous scaffolds comprised of 5% w/v keratin and 2% w/v chitosan were successfully produced without deteriorating the nanofiber morphology. | [39] |
| PVA/ GT/ MoS2 | TCH | 0.7 | 16 | 12 | 50–100 nm |
TCH loaded PVA/GT/MoS2/TCH nanofibers demonstrated excellent tensile strength and a slow release due to the presence of MoS2. Nanofibers exhibited non‐toxic effects on fibroblast cells and good antimicrobial activity against bacteria. |
[220] | |
| Silk fibroin | Fenugreek | 0.5 | 25 | 10 | 309 ± 83 nm | Fenugreek incorporated silk fibroin nanofiber was fabricated. Fenugreek release was 21.5 ± 0.9% in 24 h. | [221] | |
| PCL | PCE | — | 18 | 15 | 212 ± 40–450 ± 100 nm | PCL/PCE hybrid nanofibrous matrix exhibited high antibacterial properties and similar tensile elastomeric modulus to human skin tissue. The water contact angle of pure PCL nanofibers was 130 ± 3°, and PCL‐30%PCE nanofibers were 41 ± 1°. | [222] | |
| PCL/ Col I | — | 1 | 14 | — | Random (556.3 ± 36 nm), aligned (583.3 ± 55 nm), crossed (573.3 ± 91 nm) | PCL/Col I nanofibrous scaffolds were fabricated to resemble the organization of collagen fibrils in native skin. Diabetic rat models revealed the ability of scaffolds to enhance wound healing. | [223] | |
| PCL/collagen | Bioactive glass nanoparticles | 10 μl/min | 15 | 1.4 | 300–500 nm | ECM‐biomimetic nanofibrous scaffolds were fabricated from the composition of PCL/collagen/bioactive glass for enhancing wound healing in diabetes. The wound recovery achieved 90% in 14 days. | [224] | |
| Gelatine | Curcumin | 1.5 | 15 | 10 | — | Curcumin/gelatine‐blended nanofibrous mats were fabricated to enhance the bioavailability of curcumin for wound repair. Decreased wound area (2%) was seen at 15 days in a rat model. | [225] | |
| Cellulose acetate/gelatine | Hydroxyapatite | 0.8 | 18 | 13 | 316 ± 115 nm |
Cellulose acetate/gelatine/hydroxyapatite nanocomposite mats were fabricated as wound dressings. The wound closure rate reached 66% in 7 days and 93% in 14 days. |
[226] | |
| PHB/ gelatine/ collagen | OSA | 1.5 | 1.5 | 12 | 80 ± 10 nm | PHB/ gelatine/ OSA nanofibers were coated with collagen for wound healing application. The degradation rate of the scaffolds was 71.8% in 12 h. | [227] | |
| PCL | — | 0.1 | 21 | 6 | 250–3000 nm | An electrospun nanofibrous mat with a human skin pattern was successfully fabricated. In vitro cell culture had a proliferation of 7 days. | [228] | |
| CA | — | 3 | 25 | 10 | 1.0 μm | Electrospun cellulose nanofiber mats demo high adsorption of multiple microorganisms. Uptake capacity of nanofiber mats collected 420 times more E. coli than control. | [229] | |
| PCL | — | 1 | 18 | 15 | — | Electrospun PCL membranes fabricated as a skin substitute material. 5% PCL membrane had a modulus of 2.46 ± 0.26 MPa. Whereas, 15% PCL membrane was 3.84 ± 0.25 MPa. | [230] | |
| Coaxial electrospinning | PCL (8 wt%)/gelatine (4 wt%) | Plant extracts/minocycline antibiotics | 1.2 | 13 | 12 | 302 ± 44 nm | PCL/gelatine nanofibrous mats with core‐shell structure containing antibiotics and natural extracts were fabricated with excellent antibacterial activities and enhanced proliferation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes. Higher keratinization was observed in the mat samples loaded with antibiotics and natural extracts. | [231] |
| RSF | Curcumin/doxorubicin hydrochloride | 0.9 | 30 | 15 | 1224 nm | Dual drug loaded RSF nanofibers were fabricated. Curcumin and doxorubicin hydrochloride achieved a sustained release of 30% in 10 h. | [232] | |
| PLGA/ GT | TCH | 1 and 0.2 | 15 | 15 | 180–460 nm | TCH‐loaded PLGA/GT nanofibers with a core‐shell structure exhibited excellent tensile strength in both dry and wet conditions, and a drug release of 20% in 2 h. | [233] | |
| PCL/ Col I | DMOG | 5 and 10 μl/min | 15 | 15 | 200–500 nm | PCL/Col nanofibrous mats were fabricated and loaded with DMOG. Drug release for simply blended nanofibers was 53.3 ± 2.7% in 12 h. Whereas, core‐shell nanofibers achieved 17 ± 2.1% drug release in 12 h and 36.1 ± 4.2% in 24 h. | [234] | |
| PLLA/ mesoporous silica nanoparticles | DMOG | 0.025 ml/min | 10 | 10 | — | PLLA/ mesoporous silica nanofibers loaded with DMOG were fabricated. The wound healing ratio was 97% in 15 days, and the cumulative release achieved 0.04 mg/mL in 12 days. | [235] | |
| PCL | Ampicillin | 0.20–0.60 | 12–24 | 11 | 464 ± 214 nm | Ampicillin‐loaded AL‐BSA membranes were produced. The drug release rate reached 94.8% within 72 h. | [236] | |
| PCL/zein | MNA | 0.7 to 1.4 | 23–25 | 18 | 0.6 ± 0.04 μm | MNA‐loaded PCL/zein coaxial nanofiber membranes were fabricated. The drug release rate was 12.2% in 2 h. | [237] | |
| SA/ RCSPs | Calcium ions | — | 20 | 15 | 87.58 nm | SA/RCSPs/Calcium ions composite was fabricated based on the gelation reaction of calcium ions with alginate. The wound healing rate in the rat model was 46.6% on the 5th day and wound closure in 15 days. | [238] | |
| Gelatine/ OC | — | 2 | 20–22 | 15–18 | 150–400 nm | Cellular nanofibers had a water contact angle of 80° and a swelling rate of 380%. | [239] | |
| PCL/gelatine | — | 0.4–1.2 | 8–15 | — | 666 ± 164 nm | PCL/gelatine composite scaffolds were created and the wound closure rate in the animal model achieved 38% in 21 days. | [240] | |
| PCL/ BC | — | 1–4 | 28–29.4 | 13 | 384.24 nm | PCL/BC composite nanofibers were able to regulate scaffold hydrophilicity, which significantly increased cell proliferation. 20%PCL/5%BC nanofibers demonstrated 100% cell viability in 72 h, same as control. | [241] | |
| Triaxial electrospinning | PCL/cellulose acetate/ PVP | Nisin | 0.6, 1.2, and 0.2 | 12–14 | 20 | 0.8 μm |
Triaxial electrospun nisin‐containing membranes exhibited excellent antimicrobial properties for more than 5 days under damp conditions. Whereas, single blended nisin membranes immobilized nisin did not show antimicrobial activities. |
[242] |
| PCL/ gelatine | Doxycycline hydrophilic | 2–3 and 1–1.5 | 17–18 | 17–19 | 30.0 ± 17.0 μm | PCL/ gelatine fibers were electrospun into triaxial configuration. Doxycycline hydrophilic achieved controlled release, and the presence of GT allowed viable cells to attach to the fibers. | [243] |
Abbreviations: BC, bacterial cellulose; CA, cellulose acetate; Col I, type I collagen; DMOG, dimethyloxalylglycine; GT, gum tragacanth; MNA, metronidazole; MoS2, molybdenum disulphide; OC, oleoyl chitosan; OSA, ostholamide; PCE, poly(citrate)‐ε‐polylysine; PCL, polycaprolactone; PHB, polyhydroxybutyrate; PLGA, poly(lactic‐co‐glycolic acid); PLLA, Poly‐L‐lactic acid; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; PVP, Polyvinylpyrrolidone; RCSPs, Rana chensinensis skin peptides; RSF, regenerated silk fibroin; SA, sodium alginate; TCH, tetracycline.