Table 1.
Antiviral activity (EC50 or percentage inhibition) and cytotoxicity (CC50 or percentage inhibition) of plant derived natural products targeting different stages within the viral life cycle (– Not defined; * Extract contains mixture of compounds)
| Life cycle stage | Extract/compound | Compound type | Structure | Virus | Target | EC50/inhibition (%) | CC50/inhibition (%) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attachment/Fusion | BanLec | Lectin |
PDB ID: 7KMU (Coves‐Datson et al. 2021; Meagher and Stuckey 2021)
|
HIV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 0·48–2·06 nmol l−1 | – | Swanson et al. (2010, 2015) |
| HCV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 9·5–20·8 nmol l−1 | – | Swanson et al. (2015) | ||||
| IAV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 0·06–11 µg ml−1 | – | Swanson et al. (2015) | ||||
| H84T BanLec | Lectin | HIV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 0·33–4·10 nmol l−1 | – | Swanson et al. (2015) | ||
| Betulinic acid | Triterpenoid |
|
HCV | – | 4·2%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~75%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | |
| β‐cyclodextrin‐betulinic acid conjugates | Triterpenoid | HCV | – | 37·1–88·2%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~15–85%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||
| Betulinic acid derivatives | Triterpenoid | HIV | gp120 | 0·31 to >40 µmol l−1 | – | Sun et al. (2002) | ||
| Echinocystic acid | Triterpenoid |
|
HCV | HCV envelope glycoprotein 2 | 90%, 10 µmol l−1 | >50 µmol l−1 | Yu et al. (2013) | |
| HCV | HCV envelope glycoprotein 2 | 27·5%, 1 µmol l−1 | 0%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||||
| β‐cyclodextrin‐echinocystic acid conjugates | Triterpenoid | HCV | – | −4·0 to 86·5%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~1–90%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||
| Echinocystic acid‐galactose conjugate | Triterpenoid | IAV | HA | 5 µmol l−1 | >200 µmol l−1 | Yu et al. (2014) | ||
| Fortunella margarita EO | – | * | IAV | – | 6·77 µg ml−1 | 239·54 µg ml−1 | Ibrahim et al. (2015) | |
| Griffithsin | Lectin |
PDB ID: 2GTY (Ziolkowska and Wlodawer 2006; Ziolkowska et al. 2006)
|
HIV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 0·023–0·21 nmol l−1 | >500 nmol l−1 | Emau et al. (2007) | |
| MERS‐CoV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 44·7–63·2%, 0·125 µg ml−1 | >2 µg ml−1 | Millet et al. (2016) | ||||
| SARS‐CoV | Surface glycoprotein high mannose type glycans | 0·61–1·19 µg ml−1 | >100 µg ml−1 | O’Keefe et al. (2010) | ||||
| Isorhamnetin | Flavonoid |
|
SARS‐CoV‐2 | ACE2 | 47·7%, 50 µmol l−1 | >200 µmol l−1 | Zhan et al. (2021) | |
| Oleanolic acid | Triterpenoid |
|
HCV | HCV envelope glycoprotein 2 | 60%, 10 µmol l−1 | >50 µmol l−1 | Yu et al. (2013) | |
| HCV | HCV envelope glycoprotein 2 | 22·4%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~5%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||||
| β‐cyclodextrin‐ oleanolic acid conjugates | Triterpenoid | HCV | – | 25·2–82·7%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~0–90%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||
| Quercetin | Flavonoid |
|
IAV | HA2 subunit | 1·93–7·76 µg ml−1 | >250 µg ml−1 | Wu et al. (2015) | |
| Ursolic acid | Triterpenoid |
|
HCV | – | 13·8%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~90%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | |
| β‐cyclodextrin‐ursolic acid acid conjugates | Triterpenoid | HCV | – | 13·6–62·6%, 1 µmol l−1 | ~1–90%, 50 µmol l−1 | Xiao et al. (2014) | ||
| Uncoating | Meliacine | Cyclic peptide | Cyclic peptide with aliphatic amino acids, MW 2·2–2·3 kDa | Foot and mouth disease virus | Lysosome acidification | 0·5 µg ml−1 | >100 µg ml−1 | Wachsman et al. (1998) |
| Tea tree EO | – | * | IAV | Lysosome acidification | 0·0006% (v/v) | 0·025% (v/v) | Garozzo et al. (2011) | |
| Terpinen‐4‐ol | Monoterpenoid |
|
IAV | Lysosome acidification | 0·002% (v/v) | – | Garozzo et al. (2011) | |
| Polyprotein processing | Caffeic acid | Hydroxycinnamic Acid |
|
HIV | HIV Protease | 90·2%, 1 mg ml−1 | – | Wang et al. (2019) |
| Ethyl caffeate | Hydroxycinnamic Acid |
|
HIV | HIV Protease | 100%, 1 mg ml−1 | – | Wang et al. (2019) | |
| Isovanillin | Phenolic Aldehyde |
|
HIV | HIV Protease | 61·2%, 1 mg ml−1 | – | Wang et al. (2019) | |
| Corilagin | Polyphenol |
|
HCV | NS3 protease | 13·59 µmol l−1 | 96·65 µmol l−1 | Liu et al. (2012) | |
| Excoecariphenol D | Polyphenol |
|
HCV | NS3 protease | 12·61 µmol l−1 | 56·25 µmol l−1 | Li et al. (2012) | |
| Shuanghuanglian | – | * | SARS‐CoV‐2 | 3CLPro | 0·93–1·20 µl ml−1 | >12·50 µl ml−1 | Su et al. (2020) | |
| Baicalin | Flavonoid |
|
SARS‐CoV‐2 | 3CLPro | 27·87 µmol l−1 | >200 µmol l−1 | Su et al. (2020) | |
| Baicalein | Flavonoid |
|
SARS‐CoV‐2 | 3CLPro | 2·94 µmol l−1 | >200 µmol l−1 | Su et al. (2020) | |
| Apigenin | Flavonoid |
|
HCV | RdRp NS5B | 50 µmol l−1 | 75%, 100 µmol l−1 | Manvar et al. (2012) | |
| RNA Replication | Calanolide A | Coumarin |
|
HIV | RT | 0·08–0·50 µmol l−1 | 7·3‐>10·0 µmol l−1 | Buckheit et al. (1999) |
| Eclipra alba aqueous extract | – | * | HCV | RdRp NS5B | 95%, 130 µg ml−1 | 40%, 100 µg ml−1 | Manvar et al. (2012) | |
| Wedelolactone | Coumestan |
|
HCV | RdRp NS5B | 80%, 50 µmol ml−1 | 79%, 100 µmol l−1 | Manvar et al. (2012) | |
| Luteolin | Flavonoid |
|
HCV | RdRp NS5B | 50 µmol l−1 | 88%, 100 µmol l−1 | Manvar et al. (2012) | |
| Green tea extract | – | * | SARS‐CoV‐2 | NSp15 endo‐ribonuclease | 0·24 µg ml−1 | – | Hong et al. (2021) | |
| Epigallocatechin gallate | Polyphenol |
|
SARS‐CoV‐2 | NSp15 endo‐ribonuclease | 0·092 µg ml−1 | – | Hong et al. (2021) | |
| Protein Synthesis | Aeginetia indica aqueous extract | – | * | HCV | NS5A phosphorylation | 90%, 8 mg ml−1 | 14 mg ml−1 | Lin et al. (2018) |
| Camptothecin | Alkaloid |
|
Echovirus 71 | Topoisomerase 1 | 90%, 10 µmol l−1 | >100 µmol l−1 | Wu and Chu (2017) | |
| Castanospermine | Iminosugar |
|
Zika virus | α‐glucosidases | ~60–90%, 1 µmol l−1 | >100 μmol l−1 | Bhushan et al. (2020) | |
| Curcumin | Polyphenol |
|
EV71 | Protein kinase Cδ | ~50%, 10 µmol l−1 | 40–50%, 50 µmol l−1 | Huang et al. (2018) | |
| Celgosivir | Iminosugar |
|
DENV | α‐glucosidases | 5·17 μmol l−1 | >100 μmol l−1 | Sayce et al. (2016) | |
| Zika virus | α‐glucosidases | ~44–97%, 1 µmol l−1 | >100 μmol l−1 | Bhushan et al. (2020) | ||||
| Deoxy‐nojirimycin | Iminosugar |
|
Zika virus | α‐glucosidases | ~50–99%, 1 µmol l−1 | >100 μmol l−1 | Bhushan et al. (2020) | |
| Luteolin | Flavonoid |
|
Coxsackie A16 | – | 7·4 µmol l−1 | 148·02 µmol l−1 | Xu et al. (2014) | |
| EV71 | 10·31 µmol l−1 | 148·02 µmol l−1 | Xu et al. (2014) | |||||
| Silvestrol | Flavagline |
|
Ebola virus | eIF4a | 0·8 nmol l−1 | >10 nmol l−1 | Müller et al. (2018) | |
| Human coronavirus 229E | eIF4a | 3 nmol l−1 | >10 nmol l−1 | Müller et al. (2018) | ||||
| MERS‐CoV | eIF4a | 1·3 nmol l−1 | >10 nmol l−1 | Müller et al. (2018) | ||||
| Human rhinovirus A1 | eIF4a | 100 nmol l−1 | >10 nmol l−1 | Müller et al. (2018) | ||||
| Poliovirus | eIF4a | 20 nmol l−1 | >10 nmol l−1 | Müller et al. (2018) | ||||
| Zika virus | eIF4a | ~45%, 10 nmol l−1 | ~70%, 50 nmol l−1 | Elgner et al. (2018) | ||||
| Assembly | Berberine | Alkaloid |
|
IAV | MAPK/ERK pathway (ribo‐nucleoprotein export) | 52 μmol l−1 | 1035 μmol l−1 | Botwina et al. (2020) |
| Hemanthamine | Alkaloid |
|
IAV | Ribo‐nucleoprotein export | 1·48 μmol l−1 | 50 μmol l−1 | He et al. (2013) | |
| Lycorine | Alkaloid |
|
IAV | Ribo‐nucleoprotein export | <0·46 μmol l−1 | 20·9 μmol l−1 | He et al. (2013) | |
| Maturation | Bevirimat | Triterpenoid |
|
HIV | Gag polyprotein | 0·065 μmol l−1 | >2 μmol l−1 | Zhao et al. (2021) |
| Luteolin | Flavonoid |
|
DENV | Furin protease | 4·36–8·38 μmol l−1 | 45·89 μmol l−1 | Peng et al. (2017) |
