TABLE 1.

Recommendations for incorporating resilience principles and considerations into the design and implementation of coral reef restoration. “Operational status” refers to the ability of practitioners to implement the recommendation in restoration programs at this current time (scale: 1 = operational with many challenges; 2 = operational with some challenges; 3 = operational with few challenges), determined by averaging the ratings of coral reef experts (n = 9). “Implementation needs or dependencies” includes any data, information, or processes that are to be likely required by restoration practitioners to implement the recommendation

Recommendation	Operational status (1–3)	Implementation needs or dependencies	References
Project planning and design
Integrate environmental change and climate adaptation into restoration planning	2	Climate adaptation design tools Reef resilience assessments Climate vulnerability assessments Models of past and future local and global threats downscaled to smaller spatial scales	West et al., 2018; Shaver et al., 2020
Include local communities and traditional and local knowledge in restoration projects to support social–ecological resilience	3	Identification of key stakeholders Informational stakeholder meetings Stakeholder education and outreach Early engagement in project planning Socioeconomic data including cultural dynamics	Kittinger et al., 2016; Fox & Cundill, 2018; Hein et al., 2019
Utilize techniques that promote genetic diversity, increased thermal tolerance, and rapid coral recovery	2	Funding for advanced techniques Technical capacity with expertise Coral genotyping and inventories Monitoring donor and nursery corals for thermal tolerance	Bay et al., 2019; NASEM, 2019; Suggett & van Oppen, 2022
Coral selection
Source corals from a diversity of genotypes by collecting corals from at least 10 unique genets spaced no less than 5 meters apart	3	Donor coral genotyping and inventories Donor collections at distance Field training and education	Shearer et al., 2009; Baums et al., 2019
Source corals from a variety of reef habitats including diverse environments and conditions	3	Habitat mapping across larger reef system Ecological and environmental coral reef data Incorporation of traditional and local knowledge Corals at multiple donor sites Monitoring of success based on source and outplanting location	McLeod et al., 2009; Torda & Quigley, 2021
Restore a diversity of coral phenotypes, growth forms, and functional roles	2	Funding and technical capacity for multiple propagation techniques Access to diverse brood stock at donor sites Assessment of local coral assemblages, phenotypes, and functional roles	Nyström et al., 2008; Veron, 2011
Use thermal or disease‐resistant species and genotypes, but when not known increase genotypic and morphological diversity to incorporate varying tolerances and promote redundancy	2	Monitoring of donor and nursery colonies Genetic sequencing Funding and technical capacity for techniques Access and mapping of diverse brood stock at donor sites	Morikawa & Palumbi, 2019; Quigley et al., 2020; Barott et al., 2021
Site selection
Conduct restoration in multiple sites that represent a variety of reef habitats, such as depths, oceanographic conditions, and thermal regimes	2	Monitoring of species distribution, cover, health status across larger reef system Capacity, logistical, and financial resources Connectivity and ocean circulation data or modeling	Elmqvist et al., 2003; Nyström et al., 2008; McLeod et al., 2009
Select sites with high diversity and functional redundancy of reef herbivores	2	Surveys of herbivore diversity and abundance Effective herbivore management Technical expertise for herbivore surveys	Elmqvist et al., 2003; Burkepile & Hay, 2008
Conduct restoration in areas that show higher resilience to, or are less likely to experience, environmental or climate change impacts	2	Reef resilience assessments Reef monitoring during bleaching/disease events Models of past and future local and global threats downscaled to smaller spatial scales Incorporation of traditional and local knowledge Funding/technical capacity for surveys or modeling	McLeod et al., 2009; Oliver & Palumbi, 2011; McLeod et al., 2012; Chollett et al., 2022
Prioritize sites that provide high larval output to other areas, accommodating dispersal distances of coral species of interest	2	Hydrodynamic connectivity models downscaled to smaller spatial scales Monitoring of recruitment across reef system Incorporation of traditional and local knowledge Larval characteristics data for target coral species	Schill et al., 2015; Magris et al., 2016; Hock et al., 2017; Quigley et al., 2019; Mumby, Mason, & Hock, 2021
Broader ecosystem context
Ensure restoration is integrated within a broader resilience‐based management strategy, focused on reducing local threats to reefs prior to restoration	2	Collaborations with reef managers and stakeholders Management and conservation planning Assessment of local threats and related management authorities Management intervention monitoring Incorporation of traditional and local knowledge Political, social, and economic support	Mcleod et al., 2019; Shaver et al., 2020; Hein et al., 2021
Restore or protect multiple ecologically connected marine habitats and ecosystems	2	Effective landscape‐scale management Collaborations with practitioners or management authorities from other habitats Knowledge of restoration in other habitats Ecological and oceanographic connectivity modeling across ecosystems Incorporation of traditional and local knowledge Funding and technical capacity for techniques	Milbrandt et al., 2015; van de Koppel et al., 2015
Restore processes and populations of non‐coral species that support coral reef functional processes and recovery	1	Ecological assessment of reef species and functional roles Pilot research on interventions Funding and technical capacity for techniques	Shaver & Silliman, 2017; Ladd et al., 2018