Table 2.
Cases of DUI of SCs.
| Ref. | Cases | Age, sex | SC blood levels (ng/ml) | Other drugs | Psychomotor performances relevant for driving |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lemos (56) | 1 | 22, M | XLR-11: 1.34 | – | Slow body movements and coordination, slow, low and mumbled speech, lethargy, droopy eyelids, stiff and rigid muscle tone, lack of convergence, impaired OLS, unable to maintain balance at the WAT, no coordination at the FTN test |
| Yeakel and Logan (57) | 12 | – | JWH-018: 1.1 | – | WAT: arm raising, swayed, improper turn. OLS: flexed foot, arm raising. Slow reaction times |
| 18 | JWH-018: 0.24 | – | WAT: arm raising, improper turn. OLS: arm raising. Romberg: eye flutters | ||
| 22 | JWH-018: 9.9 JWH-250: 2.7 | – | HGN | ||
| 25 | JWH-018: pos | – | OLS: swaying movements, arm raising, tremors. Romberg: rapid eyelid and hand tremors | ||
| 18 | JWH-018: pos | – | WAT: loss of balance. OLS: incorrect counting, swaying movements, leg tremors. Romberg: leg, eye tremors | ||
| 31 | AM-2201: 1.4 JWH-081: 0.12 JWH-122: 2.5 JWH-210: 0.10 | Caffeine, theobromine, nicotine and cotinine | WAT and OLS: swaying movements, arm raising. Romberg: eye tremors | ||
| 27 | JWH-018: 0.1 AM-2201: 0.43 JWH-122: pos JWH-210: pos | – | Romberg: eye tremors | ||
| 21 | AM-2201: 3.1 JWH-250: 0.38 | – | WAT: leg, body tremors. OLS and Romberg: swaying movements, tremors | ||
| 26 | AM-2201: 0.94 | – | – | ||
| 18 | AM-2201: 3.6 | – | WAT: arm raising, leg tremors. OLS: swaying movements, arm raising, foot down Romberg: swaying movements, leg tremors | ||
| 21 | AM-2201: 2.8 JWH-081: pos JWH-122: pos JWH-210: pos | – | HGN. WAT: imbalance with near-fall | ||
| 19 | AM-2201: 4.0 JWH-210: pos | – | WAT and OLS: tremors | ||
| Musshoff et al. (61) | 7 | 18, M | AM-2201: 4.6 JWH-018: 0.17 | – | Inability to follow instructions, slow movements, confusion, disorientation, slurred speech, nearly unconsciousness |
| 14, F | JWH-210: 4.0 JWH-122: 0.33 | – | Cycling in wavy lines. Instability, slurred speech, dizzy mind | ||
| 20, M | JWH-018: 1.7 JWH-122: 7.6 JWH-210: 4.4 AM-2201: 0.31 | – | Vestibular disorder, disturbance of fine motor skills, doubtful FTF, delayed pupils' reaction to light | ||
| 29, M | JWH-210: 6.2 JWH-122: 1.0 | – | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, dizzy mind, retarded behavior | ||
| 21, M | JWH-018: 0.52 JWH-122: 0.26 JWH-210: 0.66 | – | Delayed reactions, retarded movements, dizzy mind, no pupils' reaction to light, nervousness and laziness | ||
| 21, M | JWH-307: 1.1 | Ethanol | Fast driving, run off the road. | ||
| 22, M | JWH-018: 1.0 JWH-122: 28 JWH-210: 2.5 AM-2201, JWH-307, MAM-2201, UR-144 pos | – | Retarded movements, nervousness, delayed pupils' reaction to light | ||
| Louis et al. (62) | 18 | 22, M | UR-144: pos | – | Speed, lane travel. Poor coordination, tremors, altered WAT, OLS |
| 22, M | UR-144: pos | – | Lane travel. Poor coordination, slurred speech, lack of convergence, tremors, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 25, M | UR-144: pos | – | Unconscious, accident. Shaking coordination, slurred speech, tremors | ||
| 42, M | UR-144: pos | – | Lane travel. Poor coordination, slurred speech, lack of convergence, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 29, M | UR-144: pos | – | Erratic driving. Poor coordination, droopy eyelids, slurred speech, tremors, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 30, M | UR-144, XLR-11: pos | – | Speed, lane travel. Poor coordination, slurred speech, tremors, altered WAT, FTN | ||
| 22, M | UR-144, XLR-11: pos | – | Lane travel. Lack of convergence, tremors, altered OLS, FTN | ||
| 23, M | UR-144, XLR-11, AM-2201, JWH-018, JWH-022: pos | – | Lane travel. Poor coordination, slurred speech, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 30, M | UR-144, XLR-11: pos | – | Accident. Lack of convergence, tremors, altered OLS, FTN | ||
| 25, M | UR-144: pos | – | Lane travel. Swaying movements, slurred speech, lack of convergence, tremors, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 27, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Speed, lane travel, accident. Slurred speech | ||
| 27, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Speed, lane travel, driving on curb, accident. Poor coordination, slurred speech, lack of convergence, tremors, altered WAT, OLS, FTN | ||
| 30, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Moving violation. Altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 17, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Lane travel. Poor coordination, altered WAT | ||
| 22, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Unconscious, accident. Poor coordination, slurred speech, altered WAT, OLS | ||
| 19, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Poor coordination, slurred speech, lack of convergence, tremors, altered WAT, OLS, FTN | ||
| 22, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Driving on curb. Slow coordination, droopy eyelids, tremors, altered WAT, OLS, FTN | ||
| 23, M | XLR-11: pos | – | Driving in the wrong way. Poor coordination, lack of convergence, tremors, altered WAT, OLS, FTN | ||
| Tuv et al. (63) | 16 | 48, M | JWH-081: 0.19 | Amphetamine, methamphetamine, BDZ | Mild impairment |
| 35, M | JWH-250: 0.47 | Amphetamine, methamphetamine, BDZ | Moderate impairment | ||
| 29, M | JWH-018: 0.24 | Amphetamine, methamphetamine, THC | No impairment | ||
| 17, M | AM-2201: 0.07 | Methamphetamine, BDZ | Mild impairment | ||
| 20, M | RCS-4: 1.0 | BDZ, THC | Mild impairment | ||
| 25, M | JWH-122: 1.2 | THC | No impairment | ||
| 31, M | AM-2201: 0.25 | methamphetamine, BDZ, THC | – | ||
| 35, F | JWH-018: 0.13 | Amphetamine, methamphetamine, BDZ, THC | Mild impairment | ||
| 30, M | JWH-018: 0.10 | BDZ, THC | – | ||
| 41, M | AM-2201: 0.28 | BDZ, THC, methadone | – | ||
| 33, M | JWH-018: 0.46 | Methamphetamine, BDZ | No impairment | ||
| 29, M | JWH-122: 0.50 | Ethanol, THC, LSD | Traffic accident | ||
| 27, M | JWH-122: 1.67 | THC, ketamine, LSD | Traffic accident | ||
| 26, M | JWH-018: 0.08 | BDZ, THC | Traffic accident. Severe impairment | ||
| 30, M | AM-2201: 0.4 | BDZ, methylphenidate, THC | Severe impairment | ||
| 16, M | AM-2201: 1.33 | BDZ, THC | Mild impairment | ||
| Kaneko (64) | 6 (others with no blood confirmation) | 25, M | AM-232: pos | – | Speed driving and accident. Blurred vision, abnormal posture, no crash memory |
| 24, M | 5F-PB-22: 0.27 | – | Lane travel and frontal collision. Loss of consciousness, no crash memory | ||
| 38, M | 5F-PB-22: 0.39 | – | Driving on curb, continued accelerating after impact with pedestrians, moving the steering wheel and gear lever in a stereotyped manner, no crash memory | ||
| 37, M | FUB-PB-22: 1.74 | – | Car accident. Slow movements, impaired consciousness, excited and agitated, no crash memory | ||
| 28, M | 5F-AMB: pos | – | Ignoring red light and collision. Motionless, unresponsiveness, no crash memory | ||
| 26, M | 5F-AMB: 0.07 FUB-PB-22: 0.79 | – | Car accident. Impaired consciousness, no crash memory | ||
| Kleis et al. (65) | 1 | 29, M | 5F-MDMB-PICA metabolite: pos | – | Traffic offense. Balance deficits, staggering, pupils' unresponsiveness to light, lethargy slow reactions, aggressive behavior, numbness |
| Jaenicke et al. (66) | 12 | 24, M | JWH-122: 73.05 | – | – |
| 19, M | JWH-250: 0.91 JWH-122: 9.53 | – | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, eyelid twitching, impairments of FTF and Romberg tests, change in time perception | ||
| 46, M | JWH-015: pos | Ethanol | – | ||
| 18, M | JWH-250: 0.21 | THC | Agitation, eyelid twitching, impairment of FTF, knees slightly tremulous, unsteady mood | ||
| 25, M | JWH-250: 2.94 JWH-015: pos JWH-018: 0.75 JWH-122: 1.3 | THC | Slight delayed pupils' reaction to light, impairment of FTF | ||
| 21, M | JWH-122: 0.11 | THC | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, light eyelid twitching, tremor, impairment of Romberg test | ||
| 24, M | JWH-122: pos | THC | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, agitation, vertical nystagmus, eyelid twitching, unsteadiness, impairments of FTF and Romberg tests, paranoia and delusions | ||
| 20, M | JWH-122: 0.44 JWH-210: 1.06 | Amphetamine | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, eyelid twitching, HGN, impairments of FTF and Romberg tests, OLS unsteady | ||
| 19, M | JWH-122: 0.35 | Ethanol, amphetamine | Inconspicuous mood | ||
| 20, M | JWH-122: 1.91 | THC, morphine | Agitation, no reaction to light, eyelid twitching, trismus | ||
| 36, M | JWH-016: pos | Ethanol, cocaine, methadone, BDZ | Nystagmus, unsteadiness, impairment of FTF and FTN, retarded/delayed pupils' reaction, dizzy mind, slurred speech | ||
| 38, M | JWH-250: 2.88 | Ethanol, tramadol, BDZ | Nystagmus, FTF and FTN impairment, depressive mood | ||
| McCain et al. (67) | 1 | 45, M | 5F-ADB metabolite: 26.37 | – | Driving against the traffic and swerving the vehicle into a roadside guard rail. Loss of consciousness, nystagmus, WAT and OLS impaired |
| Kraemer et al. (68) | 1 | 26, M | 5F-ADB: 0.19 | – | Erratic driving, lane travel. Mood alterations, retarded/delayed pupils' reaction |
| Peterson and Couper (58) | 24 | 22, M | AB-PINACA: 27.8 | – | Traffic accident. Confusion, slurred speech, shaking, impaired WAT and OLS |
| Same subject | AB-PINACA: 10 | – | Vehicle stopped in the roadway. Inability to stand. | ||
| Same subject | AB-CHMINACA: 9.1 | – | Erratic driving | ||
| Same subject | AB-CHMINACA: 4.5 | – | Slow lethargic movements, inability to maintain balance | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 2.6 AM-2201: 2.1 JWH-210: 0.2 | – | Lack of convergence, slightly impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 4.6 | – | Lack of convergence, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 5.7 | – | VGN, lack of convergence, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 8.3 | – | OLS slight impairment | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 9.1 | – | No impairment | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 9.1 | – | Lack of convergence, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: > 10 | – | Lack of convergence, eyelid tremors, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: > 10 | – | – | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: > 10 | – | Lack of convergence, eyelid tremors, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-PINACA: 41.3 | – | Lack of convergence, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| 38, M | AB-CHMINACA: 2.3 | – | Vehicle blocking the roadway. Lethargy, confusion, imbalance, HGN, lack of convergence, impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| 19, M | AB-CHMINACA: 7.1 | Diphenhydramine | Asleep at wheel. Slurred speech, swaying movements, instability | ||
| Same subject | AB-CHMINACA: 7.1 | Diphenhydramine | Poor driving. Impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-CHMINACA: 1 | THC | HGN | ||
| – | AB-CHMINACA: 2.4 | – | HGN, VGN, lack of convergence | ||
| – | AB-CHMINACA: 3.5 | – | Impaired WAT and OLS | ||
| – | AB-CHMINACA: 4.4 UR-144: 0.3 5F-ABPINACA: 0.4 | – | HGN, WAT, and OLS slightly impaired | ||
| AB-CHMINACA: 6.3 | – | No impairment | |||
| AB-CHMINACA: 7.3 | – | Eyelid tremors, impaired WAT and OLS | |||
| AB-CHMINACA: 9.5 | VGN, impaired WAT | ||||
| Fels et al. (59) | 4 (others with traces only) | 23, M | 5F-ADB: 1.4 | BEC, methamphetamines | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, shaking |
| 22, M | 5F-Cumyl-PICA: pos | THC | Delayed pupils' reaction to light, imbalance, nervousness, restlessness | ||
| 19, M | MDMB-CHMICA: 0.04 | THC | Eyelid twitching, lack of concentration, shaking | ||
| 28, M | 5F-MDMB-PICA: 0.04 Cumyl-PEGACLONE: 0.75 | THC, BEC | Slurred speech, euphoria, restlessness | ||
| Adamowicz and Lechowicz (60) | 1 | 19, M | UR-144: 14.6 | – | Car accident. Hyperactive behavior, sluggish pupils' reaction to light, gait abnormalities, staggering |
DUI, driving under the influence; SCs, synthetic cannabinoids; Ref., reference number; M, male; F, female; pos, positive; BDZ, benzodiazepines; BEC, benzoylecgonine; THC, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol; OLS, one leg stand test; WAT, walk-and-turn test; FTF, finger-to-finger test; FTN, finger-to-nose test; HGN, horizontal nystagmus; VGN, vertical nystagmus. Impairment was defined in the presence of more than 1 clue.