. 2022 Oct 11;195(2):1319–1513. doi: 10.1007/s12010-022-04132-y

Table 5.

Nanotechnology application of spices

Spices	NP synthesized	Characterization	NP synthesis technique used	Application	Reference
Cardamom	Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs)	Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis), spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), SEM, and FTIR	Zn acetate solution with green cardamom solution	Antimicrobial effects, anticancer activity	[676]
	Gold (Au NP)	SAED pattern, PerkinElmer Lambda-35 spectrophotometer, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and IR prestige-21 Shimadzu spectrometer	2.5 × 10–4 M Chloroauric acid with water extract of cardamom (2 g sample in 100 ml)	Anticarcinogenic effect, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities	[733]
	AuNP	XRD, SEM, TEM and UV–Vis spectra	Green synthesis	NA	[694]
	Silver NPs (AgNPs)	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic effect, anti-carcinogenic activity	[487]
	AgNPs	EDAX, XRD, FTIR and SEM	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effects	[326]
	AgNPs	SEM, UV–Vis absorbance spectroscopy, and XRD	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effects	[835]
	Gelatin NPs (GNPs)	Zeta potential, encapsulation efficacy, average particle size, DLS, UV–Vis spectrophotometry, DSC, XRD, SEM, and FE-SEM	Cardamom extract-loaded gelatin NPs with Water extract of green cardamom	Glioblastoma treatment	[649]
	ZnO-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis, XRD, SEM, and TEM	Biogenic synthesis	Antibiofilm function, antibacterial, and mosquito larvicidal effect	[972]
Black jeera	Ag-NPs	FE-SEM, FTIR, XRD, EDS, TEM, and TG–DTA	Green synthesis	Catalytic decreased of organic dyes	[769]
	Ag-NPs	SEM, UV–Vis spectrometer, FTIR, EDX	Sodium chloride solution with alcoholic extract of black cumin	Pharmacological activities, antibacterial activity, sedative, analgesic, hypertensive, and bronchodilator activities	[447, 448, 455]
	Au-NPs	SEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, EDX, and XRD	1 mM hot Au solution with methanol or alcoholic extract of black jeera seed	Urease retardation activity, enzyme retardation, antifungal, antibacterial activities, xanthine oxidase effect, and carbonic anhydrase function	[117]
	Encapsulation of black cumin EO	FTIR, SEM, AFM, and XRD	Chitosan nanopolymer	Free radical scavenging activity, antifungal, and aflatoxin B₁ retardation activity	[990]
	Cellulose NPs	GC–MS	Mentha pepperita, and black cumin EO with polylactic acid solution	Antibacterial effect	[912]
Fennel	Au-NPs	UV–Vis absorption spectra, TEM, XRD, and FTIR,	A biomimetic synthesis	Catalytic activity	[200]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, FTIR, SEM, and EDS	Rapid green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[409]
	Selenium NPs (Se-NPs)	XRD, UV–Vis, FTIR, SEM, and EDS	173 mg of sodium selenite salt solution with fennel seed extract	Toxicity evaluation, arthritis treatment	[84]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis, FTIR, TEM, and FE-SEM	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential, anti-human breast cancer, and qualitative evaluation	[194]
	Chitosan nanocomposite	XRD, SEM, and FTIR	Chitosan-based nano-encapsulated fennel EO	Aflatoxin B₁, antifungal retardation activities	[497]
	ZnO-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis, XRD, TEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	Cytotoxicity evaluation, cell treatment, and antimicrobial activity	[61]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectral	Methylene blue dye solution with fennel seed extract	Phytochemical evaluation, and catalytic activity	[603]
	Ag-NPs	Viability	Ag-NPs dilutions with 100 g fennel seed EO	Scolicidal effect for protoscoleces of hydatid cyst	[517]
	Chitosan NPs	CNPs	Chitosan solution with fennel seed EO	Fish trail, peroxide value, total volatile base nitrogen evaluation, microbial activity, and sensorial attributes	[549]
	ZnO-NPs	DLS	ZnO dispersion with water extract of anise, and fennel seed	Liver enzyme evaluation, MDA, immunohistochemistry of interleukin 6 analysis, and histopathological assessment	[127]
	ZnO-NPs	EXD, FTIR, SEM, and XRD	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity, biological, and antibacterial activity	[465]
	ZnO-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectrophotometry, and SEM	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial activity, pharmaceutical products development, agricultural area improvement	[895]
	Titanium dioxide NPs (TiO₂-NPs)	Response surface methodology	2% of TiO₂ and 2% of fennel EO	Antibacterial activity, packaging film production	[562]
	Mono-disperse carbon quantum dots (C-QDs)	NMF-ARD-SO, PCA, MCR-ALS, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, TEM, EDS, FTIR, and TLC	Purified C-QDs with fennel seed	Photoluminescence evaluation	[214]
	Transdermal nanoemulsions	HPLC	68% of Smix, 2% of fennel EO, and 5.6% of oleic acid	Anti-diabetic activity evaluated	[616]
	TiO₂-NPs	TEM	TiO₂-NPs with fennel	Chemical evaluation, heavy elements analysis	[458]
	Nano-chitosan	FTIR	Nano-chitosan, pectin with fennel EO, and potato peel extract	Antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, mechanical, thickness, optical parameter, total soluble matter, and morphological evaluation	[774]
	Oil in water nano-emulsions	Ultrasonic emulsification	Nano-emulsions with 0.05, and 0.01wt% of fennel seed EO	Herbicidal capacity evaluated	[435, 436]
Poppy	Au-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, and SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[624]
	Lead oxide NPs (PbO-NPs), and Fe2O3-NPs	EDX, XRD, FTIR, and SEM	Green synthesis	Antifungal, antibacterial activity, antioxidant activity, reducing capacity, free radical scavenging activity, and anti-carcinogenic effect	[625]
	Mesostructured silica-coated magnetic NPs	EDS, SEM, and XRD	Fe3O4 solution with solid–liquid extract of poppy seeds	Na	[176]
Clove	ZnO-NPs	TEM and SEM	Zinc nitrate solution with a clove flower solution	Anti-mycotoxin, antifungal effect, lipid peroxidation evaluation, and ergosterol content analysis	[511]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, and FTIR	Biomimetic synthesis	Antifungal, antibacterial effect	[36]
	Ag-NPs	HR-TEM, FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy and EDAX	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic activity, and anti-carcinogenic effect	[964]
	FeO-NPs	UV–Visible spectral, SEM, EDAX, and FTIR	Bee venom with water extract of clove	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[116]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and XRD	Green synthesis	Antiviral effect, micro haemagglutination evaluation, cytotoxic activity	[592]
	Pt and Au/Pt bimetallic NPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectra, XRD, XPS, cyclic voltammetry, zeta potential	Phyto-mediated synthesis	Antioxidant activity, antibacterial, and catalytic efficacy evaluated	[841, 843]
	PVP/clay nanocomposites	DSC, XRD, SAXS, SEM, and FTIR	Clove EO	Aedes aegypti larvae management	[799]
	Fe-NPs	XRD, TGA, and XPS	Green synthesis	NA	[497]
	Chitosan NPs	TEM, UV–Vis spectra, IR, and XRD	Chitosan solution with 1 ml of clove EO	Biochemical evaluation and insecticidal effect	[271]
	Fe2O3-NPs	Microscopic and spectroscopic	Biogenic green synthesis	Methylene blue dispelled	[397]
	ZnO-NPs	SEM and XRD	Green hydrothermal synthesis	Physicochemical evaluation, and bactericidal activity	[82]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectra, SEM, and FTIR	Silver solution with methanolic extract of clove flower	Antifungal, and antibacterial effect	[547]
	Ag-NPs	Analytical	Ag solution with water extract of clove	Oxidative stress, biochemical, hematological evaluation, testis, liver histological analysis, antifungal effect, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity	[162]
	Zn-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[405]
	Carbon dots	XPS, FTIR, and UV–visible spectrometer	Hydrothermal synthesis	Antioxidant effect, catalytic, and cytotoxic effect	[495, 498]
Cassia bark	Ag-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, and SEM	Silver nitrate solution with water extract of cassia bark	Pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H7N3 effect, and cytotoxicity evaluation	[292]
	Au-NPs	TEM, and UV–Vis spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Fluorescence activity	[275]
	Colloidal NPs	Cryo-SEM	Shellac solution with polyphenol-rich extract of cassia bark	Encapsulation efficacy, loading potential, TPC, antioxidant activity, pH, and stability evaluation	[623]
	Cobalt aluminate NPs (CoAl2O4-NPs)	TEM, XRD, SEM, XPS, IR, and UV–Vis spectroscopy	Cobalt aluminate solution with cassia bark extract	NA	[325]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectra, FTIR, TEM, and XRD	AgNO₃ with water extract of cassia bark	Blood glucose assessment, histopathological evaluation of liver, and kidney tissue	[483]
	Cinnamon NPs	UV–Vis spectrophotometer, FTIR, SAED, BIO-TEM, HRTEM, EDX, and DLSLC-MS	Pulse laser ablation in liquid with the cinnamon stick	Antibacterial effect	[787]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, ATR, TEM, and SAED	AgNO₃ water solution with water extract of cassia bark	Type 2 diabetes treatment	[484]
	Ag-NPs	FESEM, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, XRD, EDAX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[715]
	TiO₂ /cellulose nanocomposite	EDX, FTIR, XRD, and FE-SEM	Green synthesis	Decreased toxic organic compounds	[65]
	Se-NPs	FTIR and SEM	Green biosynthesis	Antibacterial activity	[57]
	Cinnamon NPs (CN-NPs)	UV–Vis absorption, TEM, EDX, PL emission, and FTIR-ATR	Methanol media and green pulsed laser ablation in liquid	NA	[785, 787, 788]
	Cinnamon NPs	SAED, TEM, HRTEM, FTIR, UV–Vis, and photoluminescence	4 ml of Citric acid, olive oil, and ethanolic extract of cinnamon	Antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities	[786]
	AuNPs	TEM, and UV–Vis spectrophotometer	Starch solution with alcoholic extract of cinnamon	Cytotoxicity, and prostate cancer treatment	[186]
	Nickel NPs (Ni-NPs)	XRD, FTIR, and SEM	Nickel solution with a methanol solution of cassia bark	Serum, blood biomarker evaluation, oxidative stress, and histological assessment	[386]
	Nanoemulsion	TEM	Bacterial nanocrystals with cinnamon EO	Surfactant effect of gelatin evaluation	[753]
	CNPs	TEM, and EDX spectra	Citric acid medium applying pulse laser ablation in liquid	NA	[785, 787, 788]
	AuNPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy, XRD, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[337]
	Amorphous cinnamon NPs	TEM, XRD, FTIR, and photoluminescence spectra	Ethanol solution with nanosecond-pulse laser ablation in liquid technique	Biomedicine utilization	[790]
	Mg-NPs	TEM and UV–visible spectroscopy	MgCl solution with cassia bark oleoresin	NA	[80]
	CNPs	XRD, UV–Vis, FTIR, TEM, HRTEM, SAED, EDX, DLS, and HPLC	Cinnamon stick with 5 mL of liquid methanol	Antibacterial effect	[789]
	Core/shell NPs	ZP, DLS, and PDI	1% of acetic acid solution with ethanol extract of oregano leaves, and cassia bark	Cytotoxic effect, and mitochondrial transmembrane capacity evaluation	[423]
	TiO₂-NPs	ZP	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity, oxidative stress, and histological evaluation	[791]
	Ag-NPs	DLS, UV spectroscopy, STEM, and ZP	Pectin films with cinnamon bark, and garlic extract	Antibacterial activity	[340]
	Cinnamon-loaded poly-NPs	TEM, FTIR, and XRD	50 mg of PLGA with 10 mg of methanolic extract of dried cinnamon bark	Antimicrobial effect	[971]
	Edible coatings of nanostructures chitosan	ZP, FTIR, DLS, and TEM	Chitosan solution with cinnamon EO	Quality of cucumber fruits, total chlorophylls content evaluation, and microbiological analysis	[390]
Black pepper	Au-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, EDX, SEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Catalytic effect, antibacterial, antifungal effect, urease inhibitory, xanthine oxidase effect, carbonic anhydrase-II effect, sedative, oedema evaluation, and severe toxicity analysis	[136]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, HR-TEM,	Green synthesis	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[486]
	Ag-NPs	SEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, TEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Phytochemical constituents, antibacterial effect, cytotoxic activity	[427]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, TEM, and FTIR	Rapid green biogenic synthesis	NA	[312]
	Chitosan NP	XRD, UV–Vis spectrophotometry, and ZP	Chitosan solution with black pepper EO	Insecticidal effect, toxicity, neurotransmitter evaluation, and pest control	[739]
	Copper NPs	XRD, UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, FEG-SEM, EDS, and HR-TEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[824, 825]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectra, XRD, SEM, EDX, and FTIR	Phyto-synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[406]
	Undoped cobalt oxide, and cerium ion-doped cobalt oxide NPs	AFM, UV–Vis, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Photocatalytic effect	[805]
Coriander	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV spectroscopy, XRD, SEM	Situ green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[648]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy, PXRD, DLS, ZP, XRD, FESEM, and EDAX	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[818]
	Ag-NPs	UV spectral, SEM, and FTIR	Biogenic synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[574]
	ZnO-NPs	SEM and PSA	Zn acetate solution with coriander seed, and leaves extract	Free radical scavenging activity, TPC, TFC evaluation	[867]
	Cu-NPs	XRF	Cu solution with coriander	Phytotoxic, and genotoxic activities	[60]
	ZnO-NPs	SAED, TEM, and HRTEM	Zinc-based solution, ZnSO₄ with coriander seeds	Carotenoid, chlorophyll pigment content evaluation, and antioxidant enzyme function	[771]
	ZnO-NPs	TEM	Photo-synthesis	Carotenoid content, malondialdehyde content evaluation	[758]
	ZnO-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, and EDS	Green synthesis	Proline, chlorophyll content evaluation, and lipid peroxidation analysis	[451, 454]
	CdS-NPs, and CuO-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis, FTIR, DLS, and FESEM	Ammonium hydroxide solution mixed with copper chloride solution, and coriander	Endogenous H₂O₂ evaluation, antioxidant enzyme activity, and genotoxicity analysis	[713]
	CdS-NPs and CuO-NPs	FESEM, XRD, and DLS	Ammonium hydroxide solution into copper chloride and sodium dodecyl sulfate solution with coriander seed	Mitotic evaluation	[712]
	Ag-based hybrid nanostructures	FTIR	Bio-synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[543]
	Si-NPs	UV–Vis spectrophotometer	Silicon dioxide solution and salicylic acid with coriander	TPC and TFC evaluation	[19]
	Ag-NPs	EDX, UV–visible spectrophotometry, SEM, XRD, and FTIR	AgNO₃ solution with coriander seed extract	Antibacterial activity	[813]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect, cytotoxic assay	[695]
	Ag-NPs	TEM and UV–visible spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential	[319]
Nutmeg	Ag-NPs	TEM, atomic absorption spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR and UV–visible	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[842]
	TiO₂-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, FESEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	Photocatalytic effect, morphological, physicochemical parameters, and antibacterial effect	[776]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis absorption spectrum, FTIR, XRD, TEM, and SEM–EDS	Bio-synthesis	Antibacterial effect, and cytotoxic activity	[120]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, SEM, EDX, XRD, FTIR, and ZP	AgNO₃ solution with hydroethanolic extract of nutmeg seed	Anti-diabetic activity	[698]
	Chitosan nano-matrix	XRD, SEM, and FTIR	Bio-synthesis	Antimicrobial effect, aflatoxin inhibitory capacity, and lipid peroxidation	[224, 227]
	Ag-NPs	UV spectrophotometer, FTIR, and AFM	AgNO₃ solution with nutmeg seed powder	Antimicrobial effect, biofilm activity, and plasmid curing evaluation	[349]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, SEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[935]
	Ag-NPs	SEM, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, XRD, EDAX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[408]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–visible, FTIR, SEM, TEM, and AFM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[564]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectrophotometry, DLS, TEM, FTIR, and EDX	450 ml of 1 mM AgNO₃ solution with water extract of nutmeg seed	Antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic activity	[766]
Black mustard	Ag-NPs	FTIR and ZP	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[680]
Turmeric	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, and SEM	Green synthesis	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[963]
	Cu-NPs	TEM, UV–visible spectroscopy, and FTIR	Biochemical synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[959]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectra, TEM, and FTIR	Bio-synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[505]
	Magnetic NPs	TEM	NaBH₄ solution in ammonia with rhizome of turmeric	Curcuminoids and free phenolic acids evaluation	[550]
	Nickel oxide NPs, CuO-NPs, and Cu-Ni biometallic hybrid NPs	EDX, UV spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, and TGA	Biosynthesis	Antibacterial activity, anti-leishmanial evaluation, protein kinase retardation, cytotoxic activity, anti-diabetic activity, anti-Alzheimer’s activity, and antioxidant potential	[289]
	Curcumin NPs	XRD, FTIR, TEM, and SEM	Crude curcuminoid powder with ethanol extract of turmeric powder	NA	[368]
	Ag-NPs, and Au-NPs	TEM and UV–Vis spectroscopy	Au, Ag solution with turmeric rhizome extract	Antimicrobial, and anticancer activities	[844, 845]
	Fe-NPs, Ag-NPs, and Cu-NPs	EDAX spectroscopy, UV–visible spectrophotometry, SEM, DLS, FTIR, and XRD	Facile-synthesis	Physicochemical parameter	[795]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, UV–vis spectroscopy, XRD, TEM, EDX, DLS, and fluorescence spectroscopy	Ag solution with extract of turmeric rhizome	Antibacterial effect	[318]
	Curcumin NPs	SEM, and XRD	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect and antifungal effect	[451, 454]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–visible spectroscopy, TEM, and FTIR	Bio-synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[295]
	Nano-ZnO, and nano-Curcuma longa	SEM, and FTIR	In deionized water, 200 ml solution of each 0.25 M Zn (CH₃COO)₂2H₂O and 0.5 M NaOH have been added with turmeric rhizome	Third-degree burn treatment	[152]
	Au-NPs	TEM, FTIR, and UV–Visible spectroscopy	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity	[650]
	Ag/CS nanocomposite	UV–visible spectrum, TEM, SAED, SEM, FTIR, and XRD	100 ml of 1 mM AgNO₃ solution with turmeric extract	COVID-19 treatment	[263]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, EDX, and TEM	AgNO₃ solution with turmeric powder	Antibacterial effect	[943]
	Ag-NPs	AFM, and UV–Vis spectrophotometer	90 ml of 5 mM aqueous of Ag(NO3)2 with turmeric rhizome extract	Antimicrobial effect	[894]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy, XRD, and ZP	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect, anti-carcinogenic, and cytotoxic activity	[308]
	Ag-NPs	DSC, ZP, AFM, XRD, and FTIR	100 ml of 1 mM of silver nitrate solution with ethanol extract of turmeric rhizome	Cytotoxic activity	[313]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–visible spectrophotometer, and SEM	10 µl of AgNO₃ solution with turmeric extract	Cytotoxic activity	[847]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, SEM, UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, and HPLC	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[315]
	Silver-curcumin nanoconjugates (Ag-CurNCs)	UV irradiation	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic activity, antibacterial, and photostability evaluation	[7]
	Curcumin NPs	TEM, UV spectra, SEM, and DLS	1 mL of dichloromethane and curcumin solution	MIC value, zone of inhibition evaluation	[150]
	Au-NPs	FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and TEM	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic activity, and stability evaluation	[886]
	Magnetic NPs	HRTEM, Mossbauer spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, and magnetization measurement	NaBH₄ solution in ammonia with turmeric rhizomes	NA	[297]
	Polymeric NPs	DLS, FTIR, and TEM	Curcumin–nanocurcumin with micellar aggregates of cross-linked and random copolymers of N-isopropyl acrylamide and N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone and poly-monoacrylate	Cancer treatment	[154]
	Silk fibroin NPs (SFNs)	ZP, DLS, FESEM, TEM, ATR-FTIR, fluorescence spectroscopy, and UV–Vis spectrophotometric	SF-ionic liquid solution with curcumin	Free radical scavenging activity, and cytotoxic activity	[613]
	Nano silver	XRD, DLS, SEM, EDX, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[272]
	InP/ZnS quantum dots embedded mesoporous NPs	GC–MS, and CLSM	InP/ZnS quantum dots with turmeric crude extract	NA	[376]
	Nanocurcumin	TEM, DLS, and SLS	Ethanolic extract of curcumin powder solution	Antimicrobial effect	[833]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–vis spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM, and EDS	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[62]
	Biopolymer core–shell NPs	DSC, and FTIR	Curcumin with hydrophobic protein like zein and hydrophilic polysaccharide like pectin	NA	[375, 377]
	Curcumin NPs	PL, IR, FL, FTIR and FE-SEM	Polymer solution with ethanol solution of curcumin	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[348]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy	Extracellular biosynthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[608]
	Nano-encapsulated curcuminoids	Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS)	Polyvinyl pyrrolidone with curcuminoids	Anti-inflammatory activity, oxidative stress evaluation	[534]
	Goldmag NPs (CD-GMNs)	XRD, FTIR, TGA, DLS, TEM, and VSM	Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin with turmeric	NA	[526]
	Polymeric NPs	Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)	N-isopropyl acrylamide, acrylic acid, vinylpyrrolidone with curcumin solution	Tumor, and metastases treatment	[153]
	Garlic, turmeric, and zedoary NPs	SEM	Garlic, turmeric, and zedoary added to the water	Antibiotic, and antibacterial activities	[355]
	PLA-TPGS NPs	DLS, FTIR, UV–vis spectrophotometer and FESEM	100 ml water solution of copolymer PLA-TPGS with 10 mg of curcumin	NA	[651]
	Cu-NPs	TEM, FTIR, SEM, and XRD	Copper solution with curcumin	Antifungal activity	[811]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy	90 mL of 1 mM silver nitrate distilled water with turmeric EO	Anti-inflammatory effect	[223]
	Poly-l-lysine mediated NP	Fluorescence microscope	Silica, trisodium citrate solution with curcumin	NA	[692]
	Au-NPs	FTIR, UV–Visible spectroscopy, and TEM	Rapid bio-synthesis	Radical scavenging activity, TPC, and TFC	[246]
	Chitosan phosphate NPs	TEM, and DLS	6 g of orthophosphoric acid, 2 g of chitosan powder, 100 mL of 2% of acetic acid solution with curcumin solution	Antimicrobial effect, and cytotoxic activity	[236]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, and electron microscopy	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential, anti-carcinogenic effect, trypan blue dye exclusion evaluation, MTT, LDH leakage analysis, colony developing, nitrite assessment, and caspase effects	[393]
	Ag-NPs	Fluorescence life time, UV–Visible absorption spectroscopy, and fluorescence emission spectroscopy	Ag solution with curcumin dye solution	NA	[291]
	ZnO-NPs	TEM, and XRD	Zinc solution with turmeric rhizome	Antibacterial effect, antifungal effect, antioxidant potential, and hydrogen peroxide evaluation	[392]
	Curcuma longa NPs	FTIR, XRD, SEM, and PL	Turmeric powder	Physicochemical, morphological, and optical parameters	[71]
	Nanocurcumin	TEM, FTIR, and SEM	Myristica acid, chitosan solution with curcumin	Cell viability	[466]
	Ag-NPs	FESEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, PXRD, HRTEM, SAED, and ZP	Rapid green synthesis	NA	[452]
	Curcumin PLGA-encapsulated NPs	ZP, SEM, XRD, and DSC	50 mg of PLGA with 5 mg of curcumin	Anti-plasmodial, toxicity evaluation, and cytotoxic activity	[167]
	Ag-NPs	UV–vis absorption spectrum, SEM, TEM, FTIR, X-ray photoelectron spectrometer, and DLS	10 mM AgNO₃ solution with 250 µl of 20 mM curcumin	Antiviral effect	[996]
	Apotransferrin NPs	Electron and atomic force microscopy, SEM, and TEM	10 mg of apotransferrin in 100 µl of phosphate-buffered saline with 3.6 mg of curcumin	HIV-1 neutralization	[306]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, TEM, and DLS	Green synthesis	Anti-carcinogenic activity, cytotoxic activity, and anti-tumor effect	[273]
	Alginate-chitosan-pluronic composite NPs	SEM, AFM, and FTIR	Pluronic, alginate, chitosan with curcumin	Cytotoxic activity	[225]
	Niosomes NPs	TEM, and DLS	Niosomes solution with curcumin	Physical attributes, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release	[659]
	Ag-NPs	TLC, and HPLC	Silver salts with ethanol extract of turmeric rhizome	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[365]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy	Bio-synthesis	Antifungal activity	[1019]
	Curcumin niosomal NPs	ZP, PCS, and FTIR	Cholesterol, tween 60, span 60 with 50 mg of curcumin	NA	[1020]
	Au-NPs	UV–visible spectrophotometer	Bio-synthesis	TPC	[247]
	Curcumin loaded chitosan-alginate-sTPP NPs	AFM, and FESEM	Ultrasonic-mediated synthesis	Adsorption isotherm evaluation, cell culture analysis	[26]
	Chitosan NPs	PCS, and DLS	Chitosan solution with curcumin	Stability, and hemocompatibility evaluation	[960]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, and DLS	Green synthesis	Human pterygium-derived keratinocytes treatment	[890]
	Silica NPs	N₂adsorption-desorption measurement, TEM, SEM, TGA, XRD,IR, FTIR, ZP, and DLS	PEGylated KIT-6 suspension with curcumin solution	Cytotoxic activity, and apoptosis evaluation	[546]
	PEG-albumin-curcumin NPs	FTIR, SEM, ZP, and DSC	Polymeric solution with curcumin	Breast cancer treatment	[927]
	Cassava starch NPs	DSC, TEM, FTIR, SEM, XRD, and fluorescence spectra	5 g of cassava starch solution with curcumin	DPPH, cytotoxic activity, and cellular absorption evaluation	[96]
	Au-nonaspheres	FTIR, UV–VIS spectrophotometer, and TEM	500 µl of 10 mM of Au solution with 46 mg of curcumin	Cytotoxic activity, superoxide anion development evaluation, nitric oxide release, MPO release analysis, SOD, GSH, and catalase assessment	[860, 862]
	ZnO-NPs, and Ag-NPs	UV–VIS spectrophotometry, FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, fluorescence spectra, DLS, ZP, EDX, and HRTEM	Zinc chloride solution, AgNO₃ solution with curcumin solution	Antibacterial activity	[913]
	Ag-NPs	EDS, UV–visible spectrum, SEM, zeta sizer, FTIR, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[48]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–visible spectroscopy, DLS, EDX, XRD, ZP, FESEM,EDAX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic activity	[629]
	Poly-magnetic FeO-NPs	TEM	Polymer templated iron oxide solution with curcumin	Morphogenesis, and synergistic free radical scavenging activity	[478]
	Polycaprolactone (PCL) NPs	DSC, HPLC, and ZP	PCL solution with curcumin	NA	[936]
	Curcumin NPs	ESEM	Curcumin	Anticarcinogenic effect, and antibacterial activity	[15]
	Silica NPs	FTIR, XRD, UV–visible, HPLC, TEM, XRF, XRD, and AFM	40 g of rice husk with turmeric powder	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[763]
	Ag-NPs	HPLC, tandem mass spectra	Pulse with dried rhizome of turmeric	Anti-carcinogenic activity	[602]
	Ag-NPs	UV absorption spectrometry, SEM, TEM, spectrofluorimetry, and Z scan	AgNO₃ solution with curcumin	NA	[245]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, and UV–visible absorption spectroscopy	75 ml of 1 mM of silver nitrate solution with 10 mM of curcumin	Antibacterial effect	[249]
	Au-NPs	Surface plasmon resonance spectrum, and SEM	Green synthesis	Nucleic acid evaluation	[691]
	Au-NPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy, and TEM	PVP with curcumin	Cytotoxic activity	[929]
	Starch NPs	TEM, SEM, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, and LSM	Starch solution with curcumin	Swelling evaluation	[198]
	Silver/silver chloride NPs	XRD, UV–vis, FTIR, SANS, SAXS, AFM, SEM, ZP, SAS, and EDS	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential, antibacterial activity, cell viability, and hemocompatibility	[128]
	Curcumin-PBCANPs	TEM, DLS, ZP, fluorescence spectra, and HPLC	Chitosan solution, PBCA solution with curcumin	Anti-tumor activity	[262]
	PLGA-PEG-Fe3O4 NPs	VSM, SEM, and FTIR	Fe₃O₄ and curcumin encapsulated in PLGA-PEG co-polymer	Cytotoxic activity	[775]
	Au-NPs	TEM, and UV–Vis	100 mL of miliq water solution with curcumin	Antimicrobial effect	[210]
	Polymeric NPs	SEM, UV–vis, and ZP	PVA solution with curcumin	Cellular toxicity evaluation	[779]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, XRD, and SEM	Silver nitrate solution with curcumin	NA	[18]
	Chitosan tripolyphosphate NPs	ZP, PCS, AFM, TEM, FTIR, and UV spectrophotometer	TPP salt with curcumin	Antibiotic activity	[396]
	Fluorescent carbon dots	Fluorescence spectra, UV–spectrophotometer, TEM, and FTIR	Facile synthesis	NA	[848]
	Nitrogen-doped fluorescence carbon dots	Fluorescence spectra, TEM, XPS, XRD, UV–vis absorption spectra, and FTIR	Nitrogen-doped carbon dots powder with curcumin	NA	[916]
	Carbon nanodots	TEM, FTIR, EDAX and FESEM	Carbon soot with turmeric rhizome	Antibacterial activity, cell compatibility, and anti-carcinogenic effect	[206]
	Curcumin quantum dots	CLSM, TEM, SEM, UV–VIS, fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, and ZP	60 g of zirconia beads with curcumin solution	Antibiofilm effect	[860, 862]
	Curcumin quantum dots	TEM, and DLS	Curcumin quantum dots solution	Antimicrobial activity	[764]
Bay leaves	FeO-NPs	XRD, UV–Visible, FTIR, SEM, TEM, and EDS	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[401]
	ZnO-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, SEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect, cytotoxic activity	[968]
	TiO₂-NPs	FTIR, UV–visible absorption spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, particle size, and ZP	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect, and antioxidant activity	[738]
	Zirconia NPs	XRD, UV–visible absorption spectrophotometer, FTIR, SEM, and DLS	Green biogenic synthesis	Antimicrobial activity	[191]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Visible spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM, and TEM	Green synthesis	TPC, TFC, and radical scavenging activity	[433]
	CuO-NPs	UV–vis spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity, antibacterial effect, and dye decolorization capacity	[166]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM–EDX, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect, and catalytic effect	[43]
	PLGA-NPs	SEM, UV–Vis spectrometry, DLS, and ZP	Polylactic-co-glycolic acid solution with bay leaves EO	Cancer treatment	[280]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Visible spectroscopy, SEM, ZSP, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial activity	[103]
Saffron	Au-NPs	UV–vis spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM, EDX, AFM, and XRD	Green synthesis	Catalytic effect, antibacterial effect, enzyme retardation effect, sedative effect, carrageenan-induced paw edema evaluation, and severe toxicity analysis	[58]
	ZnO-NPs, and CuO-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, SEM, XRD, EDS, and FTIR	Green synthesis	NA	[846]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–vis spectrum, HRTEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[115]
	Exogenous calcium NP	HPLC	Copper sulfate fungicide + acaricide with saffron	TFC, and antioxidant enzyme activity	[111]
	Ag-NPs	FESEM, UV–Vis, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[1021]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, FESEM, EDX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial effect	[462]
	Ag-NPs, and Au-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and TEM	Phyto-synthesis	NA	[105]
	Nano-bimetallic Ag/Pt alloy	Electron microscopy, UV–visible, infrared spectroscopy, FTIR, and XRD	Bio-synthesis	Antioxidant activity, antimicrobial, cytotoxic activity, and catalytic effect	[995]
	FeO-NPs	EDX, UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, and SEM	Biogenic synthesis	Antifungal activity	[54]
	Chitosan NPs	SEM, FTIR, XRD, WAXD, and DLS	Chitosan solution with water extract of saffron	Cytotoxic activity	[657]
	Nano-silica	HPLC	2 mM of silica solution with corms of saffron	Antioxidant enzymes evaluation	[920]
	Chitosan-gum Arabic complex nanocarriers	FTIR, XRD, TEM, and ZP	Chitosan, gum Arabic solution with saffron extract	NA	[731]
	Cu-NPs	ZP, UV–visible absorption spectroscopy, particle size, FTIR, and electron microscope	Cu solution with ethanolic extract of saffron	Oxidative stress, and antioxidant activity	[97]
Star anise	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis, FTIR, SEM, TEM, AFM, and particle size distribution	Green synthesis	Anti-diatom effect	[510]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, TEM, SAED, EDS, UV–visible absorption spectra, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy	Silver nitrate solution with star anise seed extract	NA	[544]
	PLGA-NPs	TEM, and SEM	Polylactic-co-glycolic acid with star anise	NA	[504]
Onion	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–vis spectroscopy, and SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[364]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectral, EDS, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Cytotoxic activity	[646]
	ZnO-NPs	TEM, and SEM	ZnO solution with onion root	NA	[502]
	Au-NPs, and Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, SEM–EDX, and XRD	AgNO_3, and Au solution with dried onion root	NA	[233]
	Ag-NPs	ZP, TEM, DLS, LIBS, and ICP/OES	Silver solution with onion root	Cytotoxic, and genotoxic activities	[814]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, AFM, XRD, and FTIR	Biogenic synthesis	NA	[777]
	Cu-NPs	UV–Visible spectrum, ZP, TEM, and SAED	Bioinspired synthesis	NA	[635]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectrophotometer, FTIR, TEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	NA	[998]
	Al₂O₃-NPs	FTIR, and CLSM	Al₂O₃ solution with onion root	Oxidative stress evaluation	[734]
	Cr₂O₃-NPs	CLSM	The water solution of Cr₂O₃ with onion root	Cytogenetic evaluation	[499]
	WO₃-NPs	EDX, and TEM	Tungsten solution with onion	Cytotoxic activity, and genotoxic evaluation	[535]
	Ag-NPs	TEM	Silver ions, PVP with onion root	Cytological evaluation	[300]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, ZP, UV–vis	200 mg/mL of the silver ion with onion root	Antioxidant activity, and LPO evaluation	[177]
	MgO-NPs	TEM, FESEM, DLS, and LDV	MgO solution with onion bulbs	ROS, H₂O₂ evaluation, hydroxyl radical, and lipid peroxidation analysis	[571]
	Au-NPs	TEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[682]
	Au-nanorods	ZP, and electron microscopic	Au capped with CTAB or PEG, and onion	Cytogenetic analysis
	Zn-NPs, and Ag-NPs	EDX, UV–vis spectra, TEM, particle size, PDI, and ZP	Silver ion, Zn solution with onion root tip	Genotoxicity evaluation	[9]
	Au-NPs	DLS, and TEM	Au solution with onion root	Toxicity analysis	[735, 736]
	TiO₂-NPs	Optical, fluorescence, and confocal laser scanning microscopy	12.5, 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL of TiO₂ solution with onion root tip	Genotoxicity evaluation	[674]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–visible, XRD, FTIR, SEM–EDX and TEM	ZnO solution, ZnO bulk, zinc ions with onion root	NA	[28]
	TiO₂-NPs, and ZnO-NPs	TEM, DLS, and LDV	TiO_2, ZnO solution with onion root	Cell viability evaluation	[237]
	Chitosan capped Ag-NPs	AFM, and SEM	Chitosan coated AgNO₃ solution with onion bulbs	NA	[699]
	ZnO-NPs	TEM, and ZP	Stock solution with onion bulbs	Cytotoxic activity, ROS generation, and genotoxicity evaluation	[900]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, SEM/EDS, AFM, and ZP	Green synthesis	Anti-corrosion activity	[391]
	ZnO-NPs	FTIR, DLS, and FESEM	Green synthesis	Phytotoxicity evaluation	[604]
	TiO₂-NPs, Al₂O₃-NPs, and CuO-NPs	UV–visible spectrophotometer, FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, and TEM	CuO, Al₂O_3, TiO₂ solution with onion bulbs	Superoxide radicals, ROS formation, and SOD, CAT activities evaluation	[29]
	Ag-NPs	TEM	Ag stock solution with onion bulbs	Cytological, comet evaluation, lipid peroxidation, and hydrogen peroxide analysis	[350]
	Ag-NPs	SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[740]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, TEM, SEM, and EDAX	90 ml of 1 mM zinc nitrate solution with onion bulbs extract	Cell viability, antioxidant activity, and TBARS evaluation	[988]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Visible spectra, FTIR, and SEM	Rapid green synthesis	Antioxidant machinery evaluation	[874]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, and XRD	Green synthesis	NA	[796]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, DLS, XRD, TEM, SAED, XPS, and UV–VIS	Green synthesis	Antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity	[834]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Visible spectroscopy, FTIR, and SEM	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential, cell viability, and physical stability evaluation	[8]
Dill	Chitosan nanomatrix	SEM, XRD, and FTIR	1.5 g of chitosan solution with dill seed EO	TPC, and phytotoxicity evaluation	[226]
	Nanosilver	UV–visible spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, and SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[595]
Fenugreek	Au-NPs	UV–Visible spectroscopy, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and SAED	Green synthesis	Catalytic effect	[95]
	Ag-NPs	UV–vis spectroscopy, and SEM	Biogenic synthesis	Photocatalytic, and antibacterial effect	[100]
	Fe-NPs	UV–visible spectrometry, XRD, TGA/DTG, FTIR, and TEM	Bio-synthesis	Photocatalytic methyl orange dye degradation, and antibacterial activity	[722]
	TiO₂-NPs	FTIR, UV, XRD, HRTEM, XRD, and HRSEM	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial activity	[896]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, UV–Visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, SEM, PL, and EDX	Bio-synthesis	Photocatalytic activity	[63]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, SEM, HRTEM, and EDS	Bio-synthesis	NA	[404]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectra, fluorescence, DLS, and TEM	2.5 mg of HAuCl₄ with water extract of fenugreek seed	Antioxidant activity	[324]
	Lanthanum NPs	SEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	NA	[184]
	Ag-NPs	UV–VIS spectra, SEM, and XRD	1 mM AgNO₃ solution with aqueous extract of fenugreek seed	Antimicrobial activity	[708]
	Ag-NPs, and Au-NPs	TEM, and SEM	Green synthesis	Anti-diabetic effect	[974]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectra, fluorescence, DLS, and TEM	Green synthesis	NA	[1000]
	ZnO-NPs	DLS, XRD, FTIR, SEM, and TEM	50 mL of NH₄OH solution with fenugreek seed	NA	[192]
	SnO₂-NPs	XRD, SEM, TEM, FTIR, and UV–Visible spectrometer	Biogenic synthesis	Photocatalytic, and antimicrobial effect	[339]
	MnO-NPs	SEM, XRD, TEM, FTIR, EDX, and UV–Vis spectroscopy	Green synthesis	NA	[765]
	Organic–inorganic hybrid nanoflower	SEM, XRD, EDX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial potential	[66]
	Fe-NPs, and Ag-NPs	TEM, XRD, EDX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial, and antioxidant potential	[241]
	Ag-NPs	TLC, and HPLC	Aqueous AgNO₃ solution with methanolic extract of fenugreek seed	TFC, metal chelating evaluation, FRAP, α-amylase inhibition analysis, anti-inflammatory effect, antimicrobial activity assessment	[255]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectrophotometry, and SEM	Bio-synthesis	NA	[302]
	Fe-NPs	XRD, TEM, UV–Visible spectroscopy, and FTIR	Green synthesis	NA	[78]
	ZnO-NPs	XRD, and TEM	Zinc acetate, citric acid with fenugreek seed	Seed germination, and seedling growth evaluation	[855]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, UV–Vis spectra, FTIR, and SEM	AgNO₃ solution with water extract of fenugreek seed	Optical parameters evaluation	[588]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, and SEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[31]
	Magnetic Fe-NPs	XRD, FTIR, SEM, and EDX	Green synthesis	NA	[883]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectrophotometry, EDX, XRD, and FTIR	Bio-synthesis	NA	[301]
	Nano-hydroxyapatite chitosan	SEM	Chitosan solution with fenugreek seed polysaccharide	Bone tissue engineering evaluation	[1018]
	Lanthanum NPs	FTIR and SEM	100 mg/ml of lanthanum solution with fenugreek seed extract	Osteosarcoma treatment	[219]
	Pd-NPs	SAED, UV–Visible spectroscopy, SEM, FTIR, and XRD	Green synthesis	Catalytic activity	[565]
	Ag-NPs	Particle size analyzer, UV–Visible spectroscopy, and XRD	Green synthesis	NA	[215]
	TiO₂-NPs	XRD	TiO₂ solution with alcoholic extract of fenugreek seed	NA	[358]
	Ag-NPs	SEM	Green synthesis	Antifungal activity	[277]
	Au-NPs	XRD, fluorescence spectra, SEM, TEM, EDAX, and FTIR	Facile green synthesis	NA	[79]
	Ag-NPs	FTIR, UV–Visible spectroscopy, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antibacterial, and antifungal effects	[69]
	ZnO-NPs	XRD, SEM, EDX, UV–V spectroscopy, and TEM	Biogenic synthesis	Anti-tumor capacity evaluation	[723]
	Nanosized TiO₂	DLS, FTIR, and infrared spectra	6 µL of TiO₂ stock suspension with fenugreek seed powder	NA	[600]
	Ag-NPs	XRD, and HRTEM	Green synthesis	NA	[380]
	Se-NPs	TEM, DLS, and FTIR	1 mM of selenium dioxide with water extract of fenugreek seed	Tumoricidal activity evaluation	[267]
	Au–Pd bimetallic NPs	UV–Vis, SEM, TEM, XRD, XPS, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Catalytic evaluation	[566]
	ZnO-NPs, Pd-NPs, Cd-NPs, Ni-NPs, and Ag-NPs	EDS, UV, SEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antimicrobial activity	[1007]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, FTIR, and SEM	Green synthesis	NA	[276]
	Carbon quantum dots	SEM, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, TEM, TLC, Raman spectroscopy, EDS, FTIR, and XRP	Ultrafast synthesis	NA	[213]
	Nanosized TiO₂	XRD, FTIR, and SEM	Photo-synthesis	Seedling growth, biomass, TFC evaluation, TPC, total soluble protein content analysis, antioxidant enzyme activity, and lipid peroxidation assessment	[601]
	Carbon nanodots	Fluorescence spectroscopy, and CFM	Carbon synthesis	NA	[978]
	CeO₂-NPs	SEM, XRD, FTIR, TEM, Raman spectroscopy, and XRP	Sol–gel solution with fenugreek extract	Fluorescence sensing of picric acid evaluation	[759]
	Au-NPs	TEM	Au solution with fenugreek hydrogel-agarose matrix	Carbamates evaluation	[440]
	Graphene quantum dots	FTIR, SEM, AFM, and fluorescence microscopy	Fenugreek β-amylase with aminopropyltriethoxysilane, and glutaraldehyde	Biochemical, thermodynamic, and kinetic evaluation	[23]
Asafoetida	Ag-NPs	FTIR, and TEM	Bio-synthesis	NA	[793]
	Ag-NPs	SEM, FTIR, and XRD	Green synthesis	Larvicidal effect	[804]
	Ag-NPs	EDX, FESEM, XRD, UV–visible spectroscopy, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[11]
Chili	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, SEM, EDX, XRD, and FTIR	0.1 M silver nitrate solution with water extract of chili, garlic, and ginger	Antimicrobial activity, and antioxidant activity	[668]
Allspice	Au-NPs	TEM, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, FTIR, and XRD	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity, photocatalyst, and antioxidant activity evaluation	[288]
	Ag-NPs	AFM, UV–Vis spectroscopy	Green synthesis	NA	[317]
	CuO-NPs	XRD, UV–Visible, FTIR, SEM–EDS, TEM, and TGA-DTA	Green synthesis	Cytotoxicity, anti-carcinogenic activity, antioxidant potential, and anti-diabetic effect evaluation	[703]
	Au-NPs	FTIR, XRD, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and electron microscopy	Green synthesis	NA	[457]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, TEM, EDX, GC–MS, FTIR and LC–MS	Green synthesis	Larvicidal activity evaluation	[495, 498]
Kokam	Ag-NPs	FESEM, UV–vis absorption spectroscopy, FTIR, EDS, XRD, TEM, and SAED	Biogenic synthesis	Antioxidant, and antibacterial effect	[792]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, FESEM, and FTIR	Bio-synthesis	NA	[488]
	Au-NPs	TEM, UV–spectroscopy, and SEM	Biogenic synthesis	Anti-carcinogenic effect	[132]
	Au-NPs	FTIR, UV–visible spectroscopy, EDS, XRD, SAED, and TEM	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential, photoluminescent, and photocatalytic effect evaluation	[240]
	Ag-NPs	UV–visible spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, and TEM	Phytobiological synthesis	Antibacterial activity	[905]
	Au-NPs	UV–Vis spectroscopy, and FESEM	Au solution with kokum fruit extract	NA	[489]
Greater galangal	Ag-NPs	XRD, FTIR, UV–vis spectroscopy, SEM, TEM, SAED, and EDX	Bio-synthesis	Antibacterial effect	[384]
Sweet flag	BFNPs	XRD, SEM, Raman spectroscopy, and IR	Green synthesis	Antifungal activity	[928]
	Au-NPs	UV–Visible spectral, XRD, FTIR, SEM, HRTEM, and EDAX	Green synthesis	UV-blocking and antibacterial activity	[307]
	ZnONPs	XRD, SEM, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity	[717]
	CeO₂-NPs	Confocal, light, and electron microscopy	Green synthesis	Antibiofilm effect	[64]
	ZnONPs	EDX, UV spectrophotometer, SEM, FTIR, and TEM	1 mM of zinc acetate solution with aqueous extract of sweet flag	Antimicrobial effect, and cytotoxic activity	[954]
	Ag-NPs	UV–Visible spectra	1 mm of AgNO₃ solution with methanolic extract of Agaricus bisporus, and sweet flag rhizome	Antibacterial activity	[704]
	Cu-NPs	FTIR, UV–Visible absorption spectrometer, SEM, and TEM	Green synthesis	NA	[869]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, FESEM, EDAX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antibacterial activity, and cytotoxic activity	[10]
	Ag-NPs	TEM, UV spectrophotometer, and SEM	Green synthesis	Antioxidant potential	[705]
	Au-NPs	UV spectroscopic, FTIR, SEM, and TEM	3 mM of gold chloride solution with water extract of sweet flag	Antimicrobial activity	[820]
	Ag-NPs	DLS, UV–visible spectroscopy, SEM, EDX, and FTIR	Green synthesis	Antioxidant activity, antibacterial effect, and cytotoxic activity	[637]
	ZnO-NPs	UV–visible spectrophotometric	Biogenical synthesis	Sun protection factor evaluation	[299]
	Hydroxyapatite NPs	TEM, XRD, SEM, and HRTEM	0.6 M Na₂HPO₄, 1 M CaCl₂ with water extract of sweet flag rhizome	Anti-acetylcholinesterase retardation, computational pharmacokinetics evaluation	[711]