Table 2.

Tumor-associated macrophage-derived exosomal ncRNAs affect tumor proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance

Biological function	Exosomal ncRNAs	Expression levels in macrophages and their exosomes	Potential direct target gene(s) of ncRNAs in tumor cells	Mechanism	Cancer type	Ref.
Tumor cell proliferation	miR-95	high	JunB↓	promote tumor progression by binding directly to its downstream target gene JunB to promote PCa cell proliferation, invasion, and EMT	PCa	Guan et al.87
	miR-21	high	PDCD4↓	promote tumor progression by targeting the PDCD4 gene and inhibiting PDCD4 expression to prevent apoptosis in GC cells	GC	Wang et al.88
	lncRNA LIFR-AS1	high	miR-29a↓	act as a miR-29a sponge to upregulate NFIA, promoting tumor cell proliferation but inhibiting tumor cell invasion and apoptosis	osteosarcoma	Zhang et al.89
	miR-221-3p	high	CDKN1B↓	directly target and inhibit CDKN1B expression to promote EOC cell proliferation and G1/S conversion	EOC	Li and Tang90
	miR-142 miR-223	high	STMN1 and IGF-1R↓	downregulate the expression of reporter proteins and endogenously expressed stathmin-1 and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor at the post-transcriptional level to inhibit tumor cell proliferation	HCC	Aucher et al.91
	miR-125a miR-125b	underexpressed in exosomes	CD90↑	target CD90 to promote HCC cell proliferation	HCC	Wang et al.92
Tumor metastasis	miR-501-3p	high	TGFBR3↓	target TGFBR3 to promote PDAC cell metastasis	PDAC	Yin et al.99
	miR-21-5p miR-155-5p	high	BRG1↓	downregulate BRG1 expression by binding to the BRG1 coding sequence to promote CRC cell migration and invasion	CRC	Lan et al.100
	lncRNA SBF2-AS1	high	miR-122-5p↓	act as a ceRNA to repress miR-122-5p and upregulate XIAP to promote PC progression	PC	Yin et al.102
	lncRNA AFAP1-AS1	high	miR-26a↓	act as a ceRNA to repress miR-26a and upregulate ATF2 to promote esophageal cancer (EC) cell migration and invasion and lung metastasis	EC	Mi et al.103
	miR-92a-2-5p	high	AR↓	target the 3′ UTR of AR mRNA and inhibit AR translation to alter PHLPP/p-AKT/β-catenin signaling and promote HCC cell invasion	HCC	Liu et al.104
	miR-223	high	Mef2c↓	target the Mef2c-β-catenin pathway to promote BC cell invasion	BC	Yang et al.105
	miR-223	high	PTEN↓	target the PTEN-PI3K/AKT pathway, alter the actin cytoskeleton, and upregulate multiple proteins associated with EMT to promote GC cell migration and invasion	GC	Zheng et al.106
	miR-7	high after TWEAK treatment	EGFR↓	downregulate the activity of the EGFR/AKT/ERK1/2 pathway to reduce EOC cell metastasis	EOC	Hu et al.107
Tumor angiogenesis	miR-501-3p	high	TGFBR3↓	target TGFBR3 to promote tube formation	PDAC	Yin et al.99
	miR-130b-3p	high	MLL3↓	promote GC progression via miR-130b-3p/MLL3/GRHL2 signaling	GC	Zhang et al.122
Tumor chemoresistance	miR-21	high	PTEN↓	activates PI3K/AKT signaling by downregulating PTEN to inhibit GC cell apoptosis and promote DDP resistance	GC	Zheng et al.128
	lncRNA CRNDE	high	PTEN↓	facilitate NEDD4-1-mediated PTEN ubiquitination to increase cisplatin resistance in GC cells	GC	Xin et al.129
	miR-21	high	STAT3 and PDCD4↓	regulate the STAT3/miR-21/PDCD4 signaling pathway, which is associated with temozolomide resistance in GBM	GBM	Chuang et al.117
	miR-223	high	PTEN↓	activate downstream signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT, through downregulating PTEN to enhance drug resistance in EOC cells under hypoxia	EOC	Zhu et al.132
	miR-365	high	CDA↑	upregulate the triphosphate-nucleotide pool and induce the enzyme cytidine deaminase in cancer cells to induce PDAC resistance to gemcitabine	PDAC	Binebaum et al.133