Table 3.
Multivariable generalized linear mixed model of environmental factors associated with maternal vitamin D deficiency
| Indonesia | Malaysia | Combined Cohorts | ||||
|
|
||||||
| Crude | Adjusted * | Crude | Adjusted * | Crude | Adjusted * | |
|
|
||||||
| OR (95% CI) |
OR (95% CI) |
OR (95% CI) |
OR (95% CI) |
OR (95% CI) |
OR (95% CI) |
|
| Dietary vitamin D intake per day, mcg | ||||||
| <15 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| ≥15 | 0.94 (0.41–2.17) |
1.04 (0.44–2.47) |
0.56 (0.29–1.09) |
0.48 (0.29–0.81) |
0.62 (0.41–0.92) |
0.58 (0.38–0.88) |
| Intake of supplements containing vitamin D | ||||||
| No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Yes | 1.19 (0.61–2.33) |
1.13 (0.57–2.26) |
0.72 (0.39–1.30) |
0.90 (0.55–1.47) |
0.83 (0.58–1.19) |
0.96 (0.66–1.40) |
| Duration of sun exposure per day, min | ||||||
| <60 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| ≥60 | 0.80 (0.46–1.37) |
0.74 (0.41–1.35) |
1.47 (0.44–4.85) |
1.57 (0.62–4.00) |
0.94 (0.60–1.46) |
0.87 (0.54–1.40) |
| Body surface area exposed to sunlight per day, % | ||||||
| <27 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| ≥27 | 0.36 (0.18–0.74) |
0.21 (0.90–0.48) |
0.32 (0.06–1.87) |
0.54 (0.13–2.27) |
0.35 (0.19–0.62) |
0.30 (0.16–0.60) |
| Sunscreen application | ||||||
| Yes | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| No | 0.66 (0.36–0.19) |
0.74 (0.40–1.39) |
0.98 (0.60–1.60) |
1.10 (0.75–1.62) |
0.86 (0.64–1.17) |
0.97 (0.71–1.33) |
OR - odds ratio, CI - confidence interval
*
Model adjusted for location, age at conception, gestational age at blood withdrawal, ethnicity, educational level, work status, monthly household income, parity, and pre-pregnancy BMI