Table 3.
Multivariate analysis to examine the association between total societal costs at 5 years of age and gestational age at birth (generalised linear model); gestational age presented in two categories (€, 2016 prices).
| Belgium | Denmark | Estonia | France | Germany | Italy | Netherlands | Poland | Portugal | UK | Sweden | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gestational age (ref. 28–31 weeks) | extremely preterm (22–27 weeks) | −1175.41 | 2213.02** | −536.64 | 967.53*** | −59.06 | 1004.04** | 66.10 | 4723.60* | 1763.38*** | 5784.87*** | 1866.26 |
| (617.90) | (849.17) | (394.72) | (219.40) | (733.48) | (379.66) | (360.87) | (1850.20) | (483.18) | (1554.24) | (1321.00) | ||
| SGA (ref >10th centile) | ≤10th centile | 3358.42** | 117.32 | −123.15 | 285.67 | 1003.79 | −47.89 | 494.65 | −1569.73 | 1579.45*** | 1414.83 | 1372.68 |
| (1294.46) | (627.21) | (361.43) | (164.41) | (613.87) | (276.11) | (396.86) | (1515.57) | (410.62) | (1205.84) | (1397.27) | ||
| BPD (ref: none) | Yes | 3466.09 | −1033.35 | −313.68 | 936.12** | 4872.83* | 2772.25** | 329.78 | 6161.45* | 910.73 | −1535.90 | −494.35 |
| (1827.91) | (672.04) | (529.24) | (319.98) | (2303.47) | (928.19) | (437.65) | (2846.83) | (597.60) | (1137.82) | (1393.71) | ||
| Severe congenital anomalies (ref: none) | Yes | 20,706.97 | −1937.11*** | 2293.96 | 400.48 | 2809.61 | 5602.29*** | 167.95 | 6127.73*** | −587.17 | −1640.43 | 7014.01 |
| (14,772.26) | (480.04) | (1948.65) | (305.64) | (1835.50) | (1449.55) | (529.63) | (1844.88) | (540.26) | (1297.84) | (3710.12) | ||
| Any morbidity (ref: none) | Yes | 2641.16 | 2868.84 | 794.83 | 506.01 | 3334.91 | 3056.29*** | −501.63 | 5033.25** | 3299.61*** | 9950.68*** | 14025.99* |
| (1808.76) | (2741.21) | (768.57) | (375.98) | (1937.52) | (755.07) | (393.79) | (1808.53) | (937.88) | (2704.98) | (6514.29) | ||
| Sex (ref: female) | Male | 382.69 | 2978.37** | 1290.53*** | 504.64*** | 736.63 | 497.81 | 1765.72*** | 3977.92** | 1013.32*** | 7180.26*** | 220.76 |
| (512.83) | (915.96) | (342.57) | (140.35) | (592.99) | (260.89) | (430.14) | (1364.79) | (303.01) | (1185.80) | (1039.24) | ||
| One or both parents unemployed (ref: employed) | Unemployed | 14,432.55 | 10,734.50 | 2423.82 | −470.35** | −43.10 | −1068.57** | −882.83* | −3656.24 | 3995.06*** | 976.20 | 6819.47 |
| (14,244.35) | (10,729.84) | (1409.20) | (159.83) | (3179.03) | (326.04) | (402.09) | (1969.21) | (851.86) | (2103.27) | (7394.32) | ||
| Maternal education (ref: higher education) | High school or less | −897.93 | 1117.39 | −73.61 | −251.69 | 1218.37* | 1711.91*** | 628.66* | −2620.07 | 390.22 | −576.10 | 4227.19** |
| (560.78) | (685.33) | (349.12) | (158.78) | (604.74) | (275.68) | (275.02) | (1574.33) | (294.14) | (1000.55) | (1447.61) | ||
| Country of birth for mothers (ref: native) | European born | −2654.23*** | 2551.86 | 5242.38 | 1593.64 | −996.01 | −158.98 | −1603.83*** | −1701.30*** | −1736.61 | ||
| (546.51) | (3271.53) | (7656.64) | (1014.58) | (712.32) | (371.94) | (415.99) | (349.96) | (1547.48) | ||||
| Non-European born | −2338.90*** | −1440.20 | −112.63 | 2146.35 | −649.65 | −1053.81*** | −167.04 | −5227.31*** | −3277.42** | |||
| (686.74) | (976.38) | (146.82) | (1892.65) | (421.22) | (315.16) | (534.79) | (796.11) | (1030.97) | ||||
| Maternal age (ref. 25–34) | <25 | −1916.05*** | -410.85 | −830.70* | 301.03 | 1408.48 | −1157.65*** | 6368.88* | 3064.41 | −193.89 | 11582.96*** | −4047.43*** |
| (539.59) | (562.48) | (415.56) | (241.53) | (1528.82) | (232.47) | (3011.20) | (1799.24) | (500.63) | (3127.62) | (939.58) | ||
| >34 | 2511.61 | 2874.28* | −310.69 | 88.78 | 907.71 | 1690.84*** | 105.19 | 7080.21** | −451.09 | 3016.95** | 537.82 | |
| (1439.87) | (1143.14) | (403.20) | (176.96) | (797.51) | (333.83) | (260.27) | (2317.43) | (319.88) | (1047.54) | (1165.99) | ||
| First child (ref: not the first child) | −28.85 | 166.84 | 71.66 | −30.17 | 1350.67* | −210.54 | −1171.82 | 950.62 | 570.08* | −6508.81*** | 1536.53 | |
| (512.54) | (613.82) | (327.69) | (141.60) | (587.24) | (292.08) | (640.74) | (1486.52) | (283.13) | (1471.91) | (1108.16) | ||
| Multiple (ref: singleton) | Twins | −753.33 | −1253.49 | −550.47 | −231.87 | 442.82 | −1347.15*** | −573.35 | 3906.34* | −271.95 | -4395.66*** | −1919.01* |
| (505.37) | (752.89) | (409.75) | (139.43) | (764.40) | (248.84) | (306.23) | (1738.78) | (324.70) | (758.52) | (931.50) | ||
| Triplets or quadruplets | −1865.22* | −1534.42*** | 740.97 | −432.34 | 39.90 | −1323.68* | −1824.70 | 37.38 | −4383.36*** | 680.42 | ||
| (788.76) | (250.53) | (1009.24) | (974.63) | (701.51) | (526.42) | (5691.99) | (1085.50) | (972.75) | (3600.21) |
Morbidity: intraventricular haemorrhage grades III–IV (IVH), periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), retinopathy of prematurity stages III–V (ROP), or necrotising enterocolitis needing surgery (NEC).
SGA small for gestational age, BPD bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
*p < 0.05.
**p < 0.01.
***p < 0.001.