. 2022 Oct 12;8:127. doi: 10.1186/s40798-022-00507-x

Table 1.

Summary and characteristics of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies reporting an association of sedentary behaviour with cognitive function

Authors (year) Country Study design Pinwheel number	Participants Mean age (Mage) % F (female) SB time (min)	Device or self-report (measure of sedentary behaviour)	Domain (outcome measure)	Covariates adjusted for	Results
Amagasta et al. (2020) [77] Japan CS Prevalence Study number in pinwheel = 1	Cognitive decline n = 48, Mage = 77.6 (5.4), %F = 52, SB time = 476 Non-cognitive decline n = 463, Mage = 73.0 (5.4), %F = 53, SB time = 442 Population: mixed	Device (Active style Pro HJA-750C)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE) ≤ 23 = Cognitive Function Decline	Model 1: unadjusted Model 4: Gender, age, education, BMI, living arrangements, working status, smoking, alcohol use, past history of stroke, medication for hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes	SB relative to other behaviours: OR 1.06; 95% CI [0.42, 2.72] SB and cognitive function: Model 1: OR 1.30 [0.63, 2.70] Model 4: OR 0.96 [0.38, 2.39]
Bollaert et al. (2019) [68] USA CS Prevalence Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 39	Healthy group n = 40, Mage = 66.5 (6.7), %F = 63, SB time = 534 Multiple Sclerosis group n = 40, Mage = 65.3 (4.3), %F = 63, SB time = 540 Population: mixed	Device (Actigraph)	Processing Speed (PASAT) Episodic Memory (CVLT-II)	Not stated	*Total SB* *Healthy Controls (r)* SDMT: − 0.38 CVLT-II: − 0.13 BVMT-R: − 0.03 PASAT: − 0.11 *MS Group (r)* SDMT: − 0.15 CVLT-II: 0.20 BVMT-R: − 0.08 PASAT: 0.08
Bojsen-Moller et al. (2019) [50] Sweden CS Study number in pinwheel = 2	n = 334, Mage = 42.4 (9.1), %F = 68, SB time = 565 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph GT3X)	Processing Speed (TMT A, Digit Symbol) Working Memory (DSB, N-back (2-back), AOS, TMT B) Episodic Memory (Free Recall, Word Recognition) Executive Function (Stroop) Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)	Model 2: age, gender, education, % of daytime in sedentary behaviour Model 4: age, gender, education, % of daytime in sedentary behaviour and VO2max	SB and cognitive outcomes: β, [95% CI] Model 2 Digit symbol: 0.004 [− 0.145, 0.138] Free recall: 0.125 [− 0.011, 0.266], p < 0.05 Digit span backwards: 0.003 [− 0.139, 0.146] 2-back (accuracy): − 0.022 [− 0.165, 0.120] 2-back (reaction time): − 0.053 [− 0.195, 0.087] Word recognition: 0.035 [− 0.107, 0.177] AOS (recalled sets): − 0.011 [− 0.159, 0.136] AOS (accuracy): − 0.022 [− 0.165, 0.120] Stroop: 0.012 [− 0.131, 0.155] TMT A: 0.042 [− 0.103, 0.190] TMT B: − 0.032 [− 0.194, 0.126] Model 4 Digit symbol: − 0.047 [− 0.219, 0.126] Free recall: 0.136 [− 0.003, 0.280], p < 0.05 Digit span backwards: − 0.003 [− 0.149, 0.142] 2-back (accuracy): 0.060 [− 0.085, 0.207] 2-back (reaction time): − 0.052 [− 0.198, 0.092] Word recognition: 0.071 [− 0.071, 0.215] AOS (recalled sets): 0.010 [− 0.140, 0.161] AOS (accuracy): − 0.006 [− 0.152, 0.140] Stroop: − 0.016 [− 0.162, 0.129] TMT A: 0.04 [− 0.108, 0.191] TMT B: − 0.044 [− 0.210, 0.118]
Burzynska et al. (2020) [69] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 40	n = 228, Mage = 65.3 (4.5) %F = 68, SB time = 537 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (DS, Digit Symbol, Pattern comparison, letter comparison) Episodic Memory (Word recall, Logical memory, Paired associates)	Model 1: age, sex, education, adult education, light, and moderate to vigorous PA	β (SE) Processing speed: − 0.009 (0.001) p = 0.900 Episodic Memory: β = 0.088 (0.001) p = 0.245
Cukic et al. (2018) [35] Scotland CS/LO Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 3^a,b,c	LBC1936 cohort n = 271, Mage = 79.0 (0.4) % F = 48, SB time = 627 Population: non-clinical 3^a	Device (activPal3)	Global Cognitive Function (general cognitive ability factor (g) computed from 6 tests taken from the WAIS (Matrix Reasoning, Block Design, Letter-Number Sequencing, Symbol Search, DSB, and Digit Symbol), Moray Houst Test No. 12 (MHT), Alice Heim 4 test (AH4)) Processing Speed (Four-choice RT) Motor Skills and Construction (Simple RT)	Model 1: age and sex Model 3: age, sex, education, long standing illness	Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI] Model 1 g-wave 4: − 0.06 [− 0.18, 0.06], p = 0.36 Simple RT: 0.03 [− 0.09, 0.15], p = 0.61 Choice RT: − 0.10 [− 0.22, 0.02], p = 0.09 MHT change age 11–79: − 0.09 [− 0.21, 0.03], p = 13 Model 3 g-factor: − 0.01 [− 0.15, 0.13], p = 0.9 Simple RT: 0.02 [− 0.1, 0.14], p = 0.77 Choice RT: − 0.12 [− 0.24, 1.0], p = 0.05 MHT change age 11–79: − 0.06 [− 0.20, 0.08], p = 0.34
Twenty-07 1950’s cohort n = 310, Mage = 64.6 (0.9), %F = 53.2, SB time (%) = 60.8 Population: non-clinical 3^b	Model 1: age and sex Model 4: age, sex, education, long standing illness, employment status	Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI] Model 1 AH4 wave 5: − 0.08 [− 0.04, 0.20], p = 0.18 Simple RT wave 5: 0.12 [0.00, 0.24], p = 0.04 Choice RT wave 5: 0.09 [− 0.03, 0.21], p = 0.13 Model 4 AH4 wave 5: − 0.06 [− 0.20, 0.08], p = 0.39 Simple RT: 0.06 [− 0.06, 0.18], p = 0.26 Choice RT: 0.05 [− 0.07, 0.17], p = 0.41
Twenty-07 1930’s cohort n = 119, Mage = 83.4 (0.6), %F = 55, SB time (%) = 68 Population: non-clinical 3^c	Model 1: age and sex Model 3: age, sex, education, long standing illness	Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI] Model 1 AH4 wave 1: − 0.08 [− 0.28, 0.12], p = 0.41 AH4 wave 5: − 0.07 [− 0.27, 0.13], p = 0.49 Simple RT wave 5: 0.04 [− 0.14, 0.22], p = 0.70 Choice RT wave 5: 0.10 [− 0.14, 0.34], p = 0.42 Model 3 AH4 wave 1: − 0.08 [− 0.30, 0.14], p = 0.45 AH4 wave 5: − 0.04 [− 0.26, 0.18], p = 0.75 Simple RT wave 5: 0.02 [− 0.18, 0.22], p = 0.82 Choice RT wave 5: 0.10 [− 0.15, 0.35], p = 0.42
Ehlers et al. (2018) [41] USA CS Isotemporal Study number in pinwheel = 5	n = 271, Mage = 57.8 (9.5), %F = 100, SB time = 600 Population: clinical	Device (Actigraph) Isotemporal: Substituting 30 min of sedentary time with 30 min of light-intensity activity, MVPA, and sleep	Processing Speed (TMT A) Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B, Task-switching) Working Memory (TMT B)	Single effect: age, months of hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, total time Partition effect: age, months of hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, total time, other behaviours	Total SB time and cognitive function B 95% CI Single effect Task switch-switch: 2.06 [− 7.07, 11.16] Task switch-stay: − 1.47 [− 9.62, 6.69] TMT A: − 0.97 [− 1.85, − 0.08], p < 0.05 TMT B: − 1.19 [− 2.41, 0.03] Partition effect Task switch-switch: − 8.76 [− 22.26, 4.76] Task switch-stay: − 5.94 [− 18.07, 6.18] TMT A: − 0.75 [− 2.05, 0.55] TMT B: − 0.92 [− 2.71, 0.87] Replacing 30 min of sedentary time with 30 min of MVPA yielded faster reaction times on Task-Switch stay (B = −29.37, p = 0.04) and switch (B = −39.49, p = 0.02) trials Replacing sedentary time with light-intensity activity was associated with slower Trails A (B = 1.55 p = 0.002) and Trails B (B = 1.69, p = 0.02) completion
Ekblom et al. (2019) [90] Sweden CS Study number in pinwheel = 6	n = 216, age range = 54–66, %F = 56, SB time = 461 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Episodic Memory (Verbal Memory) Motor Skills and Construction (Rey Complex Figure) Processing Speed (SDMT, TMT A, Stroop 1) Cognitive Flexibility & Working Memory (TMT B) Executive Function (Stroop 2 & 3)	age, gender, smoking, education, born outside Sweden	SB and cognitive function (β) verbal memory (verbatim): 0.136, p < 0.05 verbal memory (direct Syn): 0.137, p < 0.05 verbal memory (delayed Verbatim): 0.119, p < 0.1 verbal memory (delayed Syn): 0.134, p < 0.1 Stroop 1: not significant Stroop 2: − 0.141, p < 0.05 Stroop 3: − 0.137, p < 0.01 SDMT: 0.126, p < 0.01 TMT A: not significant TMT B: − 0.113, p < 0.01 RCF 1: 0.109, p = 0.139 RCF 2: 0.071, p = 0.342 RCF 3: − 0.027, p = 0.717
English et al. (2016) [74] Australia CS Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 7	n = 50, Mage = 67.2 (11.6), % F = 34, SB = nr Population: clinical	Device (activPAL)	Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)	waking hours	MoCA with total sitting time r = 0.153, p = 0.3
Ezeugwu et al. (2017) [70] Canada CS Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 8	n = 30, Mage = 63.8 (12.3), %F = 43, SB time = 674 Population: clinical	Device (activPAL)	Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)	Not reported	SB time and MoCA r = −0.08, p > 0.05
Falck et al. (2017) [55] Canada CS Prevalence Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 10	Probable MCI n = 81, Mage = 72.5 (7.6), %F = 60, SB time = 595 Without MCI n = 69, Mage = 69.4 (6.4), %F = 78, SB time = 542 Population: mixed	Device (MotionWatch8)	Global Cognitive Function (MoCA, ADAS-Cog Plus) Probable MCI = MoCA < 26	Age, sex, education	SB and ADAS-Cog Plus (β) % Sedentary time: 0.007, p = 0.089 Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.061, p = 0.016 SB and ADAS-Cog Plus Based on MCI Status (β) non-MCI % Sedentary time: 0.012, p = 0.038 Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.075, p = 0.064 MCI % Sedentary time: < 0.001, p = 0.948 Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.033, p = 0.282
Fanning et al. (2017) [42] USA CS Isotemporal Study number in pinwheel = 12	n = 247, Mage = 65.4 (4.6), %F = 68, SB time = 534 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph) Isotemporal: Substituting 30 min of sedentary behavior with 30 min of light activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), or sleep	Working Memory (computer-based task) Cognitive Flexibility (Task-switching)	Age, gender, race	SB and Working memory 2-item accuracy r = −0.106, p = 0.133 3-item accuracy r = −0.040, p = 0.575 4-item accuracy r = −0.081, p = 0.249 2-item reaction time r = 0.052, p = 0.460 3-item reaction time r = 0.013, p = 0.851 4-item reaction time r = 0.040, p = 0.566 *SB and Cognitive Flexibility* Single avg accuracy: r = −0.061, p = 0.391 Mixed repeat avg acc: r = 0.045, p = 0.532 Mixed switch avg acc: r = 0.006, p = 0.933 Global switch cost acc: r = −0.086, p = 0.228 Local switch cost acc: r = 0.084, p = 0.240 Single avg RT: r = 0.019, p = 0.794 Mixed repeat avg RT: r = 0.067, p = 0.352 Mixed switch avg RT: r = 0.070, p = 0.329 Global switch cost RT: r = 0.046, p = 0.525 Local switch cost RT: r = 0.026, p = 0.712 Substitution of sedentary time with MVPA was associated with higher accuracy on 2-item (B = .03, p = .01) and 3-item (B = .02, p = .04) working memory tasks, and with faster reaction times on single (B = −23.12, p = .03) and mixed-repeated task-switching blocks (B = −27.06, p = .04) Substitution of sedentary time with sleep was associated with marginally faster reaction time on mixed-repeated task-switching blocks (B = −12.20, p = .07) and faster reaction time on mixed-switch blocks (B = 17.21, p = .05), as well as reduced global reaction time switch cost (B = −16.86, p = .01)
García-Hermoso et al. (2018) [48] Chile CS Study number in pinwheel = 13	n = 989, Mage = 74.1 (7.0), %F = 61, SB time = 225 Population: mixed	Self-report (Global Physical Activity Questionnaire)	Global Cognitive Function (modified-MMSE) ≤ 13 or less considered cognitively impaired	Model 1: age, sex, education level, BMI, social characteristics (living alone), alcohol and drug use, tobacco intake, depression Model 2: age, sex, BMI, social characteristics (education level and living alone), alcohol and drug use, tobacco intake, depression, MVPA	Odds Ratio [95% CI] 1.00, non-sedentary/active (ref group) 1.63 [0.92 to 4.75] non-sed/inactive, p = 0.084 1.91 [1.83 to 3.75] sed/active, p = 0.011 4.65 [2.50 to 6.31] sed/inactive, p < 0.001 SB and cognition Model 1: β = −0.063, p = < 0.001 Model 2: β = −0.046, p = < 0.05
Hayes et al. (2015) [61] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 15	n = 31, Mage = 64.5 (7.0), %F = 58, SB time = 565 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Episodic Memory (BVMT-Revised and the Faces subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition, verbal memory Z score, CVLT logical memory recall) Executive Function (TMT, VF from the Delis Kaplan Executive Function System, DSB and mental arithmetic from WAIS and the WCST)	Age, gender, education, depression, hypertension, wear time	SB and cognition Visuospatial memory test pr = −0.41, p < 0.05 face-name memory task pr = −0.53, p < 0.05 verbal memory: nr Executive Function: nr
Hubbard et al. (2015) [79] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 16	n = 82, Mage = 49.0 (9.1), %F = 76, SB time = 582 Population: clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Processing Speed (SDMT)	Not reported	SB and cognition overall: r = −0.12, p = 0.29 mild: r = −0.14, p = 0.38 moderate: r = 0.06, p = 0.71
Iso-Markku et al. (2018) [78] Finland CS Study number in pinwheel = 17	n = 726, Mage = 72.9 (1.0), %F = 52, SB time = 537 Population: non-clinical	Device (Hookie AM20)	Global Cognitive Function (Telephone assessment and interview for Cognitive Status (orientation, serial subtraction, word recall, semantics, sentence repetition, linguistic skills, and attention)	Model 1: age, sex, accelerometer wear time, mean daily MET Model 2: age, sex, accelerometer wear time, BMI, living condition, years of education, mean daily MET	Total cog score and SB *Between-family analyses* β (95% CI) Model 1: − 0.20 (− 0.41 to 0.01), p > 0.05 Model 2: − 0.21 (0.42 to − 0.003), p < 0.05
Johnson et al. (2016) [65] Australia CS Study number in pinwheel = 18	n = 188, Mage = 64.0 (7.3), %F = 54, SB time = 582 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (TMT A) Cognitive Flexibility & Working Memory (TMT B) Episodic Memory (HVLT-R)	age, gender, level of education, waist to hip ratio, history of cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, HVLT total recall score (screening tool for MCI)	SB and cognitive function TMT A: r = 0.082, p = ns TMT B: r = 0.050, p = ns HVLT: r = 0.001 p = ns
Kojima et al. (2019) [40] Japan LO Study number in pinwheel = 43	n = 15, Mage = 78.0 (11.6), %F = 40 SB time = 1312 Population: clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (SDMT) Working Memory (Symbol Trails, Design Memory) Cognitive Flexibility (Symbol Trails, Symbol Cancellation) Executive Function (Symbol Cancellation, Mazes)	Not stated	4 months Value of sedentary behavior significantly decreased over four months (p < 0.05) Less sedentary behavior was significantly correlated with better SDMT scores (r = −0.355, p = 0.005)
Koolhaas et al. (2019) [37] Netherlands CS/LO Study number in pinwheel = 19	n = 1841, Mage = 62.6 (9.3), %F = 54, SB time = 528 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE, g-factor test battery: MMSE, Stroop, letter-digit substitution task, VF15-word learning test, Purdue pegboard test)	Model 1: age, sex, cohort, awake time Model 3: age, sex, cohort, awake time, education, occupational status, marital status, smoking, BMI, PA and disability score	*Cross-sectional* β [95% CI] SB and g-factor Model 1: − 0.03 [− 0.05, − 0.01], p = 0.005 Model 3: − 0.01 [− 0.03, 0.01], p = 0.23 SB and MMSE Model 1: − 0.01 [− 0.06, 0.04], p = 0.66 Model 3: − 0.0004 [− 0.05, 0.05], p = 0.98 *5.7-year follow-up* g-factor: 0.18-point (SD: 0.51) decline MMSE score: 0.06-point decline (SD: 1.89)
Ku et al. (2017) [36] Taiwan CS/LO Study number in pinwheel = 20	n = 274, Mage = 74.5 (6.1), %F = 54, SB time = categories Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Global Cognitive Function (AD8)	Model 1: baseline cognitive status, sex, age, and wear time of accelerometer Model 3: baseline cognitive status, sex, age, years of formal education, marital status, income source, smoking, number of comorbidities, depressive symptoms, wear time of accelerometer, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and activities of daily living	*SB time & cognitive ability (baseline)* r = 0.15, p = < 0.05 *SB time & cognitive ability (2-year follow-up) r = 0.21, p = < 0 .001 Adjusted rate ratio [95% CI]* Model 1: 1.13 [1.04, 1.22), p = 0.002 Model 3: 1.10 [1.00, 1.19], p = 0.047
Lee et al. (2013) [39] Japan LO Study number in pinwheel = 21	n = 550, Mage = nr, %F = 48, SB time = nr Population: non-clinical	Self-report (Trained interviewers asked subjects about time spent in physical activity for the past 12 months)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE) Incidence and Odds of Significant cognitive decline (− 3 points on MMSE)	Model 1: age, sex, educational level Model 3: age, sex, educational level, BMI, initial MMSE score, smoking status, self-rated health, Depression, sleep duration, whether participant was working, hypertension, myocardial infarction, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis and MVPA	Longitudinal (8-years) OR [95% CI] Model 1: 1.97, 95% [1.01, 3.86] Model 3: 3.03 [1.29, 7.14]
Leung et al. (2017) [76] Canada CS Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 22	n = 114, Mage = 86.7 (7.5), %F = 85, SB = nr Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)	Not reported	*% waking time in SB and MoCA:* p > 0.05
Lopes et al. (2015) [82] Brazil CS Study number in pinwheel = 23	n = 2471, Mage = nr, %F = 60, SB time = categories Population: mixed	Self-report (The International physical activity questionnaire)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE) ≤ 25 = low cognitive performance (LCP) > 25 = high cognitive performance	Not reported	LCP prevalence [95% CI] 1st tertile (< 180 min/day): 38.20 [32.10, 44.69] 2nd tertile (> 180 < 308.61 min/day): 28.42 [22.70, 34.93] 3rd tertile (> 308.61 min/day): 29.34 [24.48, 34.72] LCP Prevalence ratio (PR) [95% CI] 2nd tertile [> 180 ≤ 308.61 min/day] Crude PR, 0.74 [0.60, 0.91] Adjusted PR, 0.73 [0.59, 0.89], p < 0.05 3rd tertile [> 380.61 min/day] Crude PR, 0.76 [0.62, 0.93] Adjusted PR, 0.75 (0.61–0.91), p < 0.05
Lu et al. (2018) [84] Hong Kong CS Prevalence Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 24	Healthy: n = 271, Mage = 81.9 (3.5), %F = 38 Low MoCA: n = 252, Mage = 83.4 (4.0), %F = 48 MCI: n = 105, Mage = 83.6 (3.7), %F = 49 AD: n = 182, Mage = 80.8 (5.9), %F = 65 Population: mixed	Device (Actigraph)	Global Cognitive Function (Hong Kong version of (MoCA)	Model 1: age, gender, wear time Model 2: age, gender, wear time, years of education, BMI, unusual gait speed, living status, disease burden	Time in SB (min/day): Controls = 546.7 Low MoCA = 534.1 MCI = 516.9 AD = 601.2
Maasakkers et al. (2020) [38] Australia, USA, Japan, and Singapore CS/LO Study number in pinwheel = 25^a,b,c,d	PATH Cohort n = 1552, Mage = 75.1 (1.5), %F = 49, SB time = 426 Population: non-clinical 25^a	Self-report (asked two questions relating to SB on a usual day, which distinguished between weekdays and weekend days)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)	Unadjusted model: none Model 3: age, gender, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA	*Cross-sectional* Unadjusted B = −0.003 [− 0.005, 0.001], p = 0.79 Model 3 B = 0.001 [− 0.021, 0.022], p = 0.96
SALSA Cohort n = 1663, Mage = 70.2 (6.8), %F = 58, SB time = 276 Population: non-clinical 25^b	Self-report (administered three questions of SB related to sitting at work, at home, and while driving a car during a regular week)	Global Cognitive Function (3MS)	Unadjusted model: none Model 2: age, gender, ethnicity, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA	*Cross-sectional (B)* Unadjusted: 0.33 [0.027, 0.632], p = 0.03 Model 2: − 0.043 [− 0.317, 0.230], p = 0.76 *Longitudinal (8.1-year follow-up)* Unadjusted: 0.008 [− 0.038, 0.053], p = 0.74 Model 2: − 0.011 [− 0.058, 0.037], p = 0.66
SGS Cohort n = 2597, Mage = 73.4 (6.1), %F = 56, SB time = 444 Population: non-clinical 25^c	Device (Active style Pro HJA-350IT)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)	Unadjusted model: none Model 2: age, gender, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, living status, perceived health, morbidities, depression and PA	*Cross-sectional (B)* Unadjusted: − 0.005 [− 0.015, 0.004], p = 0.25 Model 2: 0.006 [− 0.006, 0.018], p = 0.35 *Longitudinal (2-year follow-up)* Unadjusted: − 0.003 [− 0.009, 0.004], p = 0.40 Model 2: − 0.001 [− 0.010, 0.007], p = 0.73
SLAS2 Cohort n = 3087, Mage = 66.7 (7.8), %F = 63, SB time = 366 Population: non-clinical 25^d	Self-report (asked two questions relating to SB on a usual day, which distinguished between weekdays and weekend days)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)	Model 1: unadjusted Model 2: age, gender, ethnicity, education, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA	*Cross-sectional (B)* Unadjusted: 0.04 [− 0.004, 0.083], p = 0.08 Model 2: 0.118 [0.075, 0.160], p = < 0.001 *Longitudinal (3.8-year follow-up)* Unadjusted: − 0.007 [− 0.021, 0.007], p = 0.32 Model 2: − 0.011 [− 0.027, 0.004], p = 0.16
Marinac et al. (2019) [64] USA CS Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 26	n = 30, Mage = 62.2 (7.8), %F = 100, SB time = 498 Population: clinical	Device (activPAL)	Cognitive Flexibility (The Dimensional Change Card Sort Test) Executive Function (FLA) Episodic Memory (Picture Sequence Memory Test) Working Memory (List Sorting) Processing Speed (Pattern Comparison Test)	device wear time, education, employment status, MVPA, chemotherapy status	Total sitting time: (b, p) Executive Function: 0.21, 0.88 Cognitive Flexibility: − 2.75, 0.06 Episodic memory: 2.69, 0.34 Working memory: − 1.01, 0.63 Processing speed: − 2.47, 0.32
Olanrewaju et al. (2020) [80] Ireland CS Study number in pinwheel = 47	n = 8163, Mage = 63.5 (9.2), %F = 52, SB time = 295 Population: non-clinical	Self-report (International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ))	Processing Speed (AF) Global Cognitive Function (MMSE) Episodic Memory (Immediate and delayed recall)	Age, sex, social class	Episodic memory: β (95% CI) 0.01 (− 0.004, 0.02), p > 0.05 Processing Speed: β (95% CI) 0.003 (− 0.01, 0.01), p > 0.05 Global Cognitive Function: β (95% CI) 0.01 (− 0.01, 0.02), p > 0.05
Rosenberg, et al. (2016) [51] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 27	n = 307, Mage = 83.6 (6.4), %F = 72, SB time = 516 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B) Processing Speed (TMT A)	age, gender, marital status, educational status, MVPA, wear time	*Objective Sedentary Time (β (SE))*** TMT A: − 0.02 (0.02) p = 0.33 TMT B: − 0.03 (0.02) p = 0.18
n = 280, SB time = 660 Population: non-clinical	Self-report (Sedentary Behaviour Questionnaire)	Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B) Processing Speed (TMT A)	age, gender, marital status, educational status, MVPA	*Self-reported SB (β(SE))*** TMT A: − 0.01 (0.00) p = < 0.01 TMT B: 0.01 (0.01) p = 0.08
Siddarth et al., (2018) [81] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 28	n = 35, Mage = 60.4 (8.1), %F = 71, SB time = 432 Population: non-clinical	Self-report [International Physical Activity Questionnaire modified for older adults (average number of hours spent sitting)]	Episodic Memory (Verbal paired association, Selective reminding scores) Processing Speed (Digit symbol scores)	age	Verbal paired association: r = 0.12 p = 0.5 Selective reminding scores: r = 0.28 p = 0.11 Digit symbol scores: r = −0.18 p = 0.34
Snethen et al. (2014) [44] USA CS 29 Study number in pinwheel = 29	n = 30, Mage = 50.6 (nr), %F = 10, SB time = 406 Population: clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Cognitive Flexibility (WCST)	Diagnosis, sex, age, BMI	r = 0.04, p > 0.05
Stubbs et al. (2017) [56] Taiwan CS Study number in pinwheel = 30	Schizophrenia n = 199, Mage = 44.0 (9.9), %F = 39, SB time = 581 Controls n = 60, Mage = 41.9 (9.6), %F = 43, SB time = 336 Population: mixed	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (COG) Motor Skills and Construction (Reaction Test, GPT)	Model 1: age, sex, education, weight status, smoking, alcohol consumption, medications, PANSS, MetS Model 2: age, sex, education, weight status, smoking, alcohol consumption, medications, PANSS, MetS, Physical activity energy expenditure	Total SB and cognitive function outcomes Schizophrenia group COG: p = 0.403 GPT*: p* = *0.020* Reaction Time reaction (msec): p = 0.984 Reaction Time motor (msec): p = 0.070 control group COG: p = 0.295 GPT: p = *0.016* Reaction Time reaction (msec): p = 0.016 Reaction Time motor (msec): p = 0.378 Comparing means b/w low and high SB in Patients with Schizophrenia Reaction Time reaction (msec) p = 0.803 669.5 (SD = 532.2) low sed 652.3 (SD = 410.0) high sed Reaction Time motor (msec*), p* = 0.037 355.2 (SD = 170.8) low sed 421.3 (SD = 252.7) high sed COG, p = 0.442 176.9 (SD = 95.1) low sed 165.8 (SD = 107.1) high sed GPT: p = 0.034 131.6 (SD = 44.1) low sed 145.4 (SD = 46.7) high sed
Suzuki et al. (2020) [57] Japan CS Prevalence Study number in pinwheel = 48	Males n = 68, Mage = 88.0 (1.0), %F = 0, SB time = 855 Females n = 68, Mage = 88.0 (0.9), %F = 100, SB time = 798 Population: mixed	Device (Actigraph)	Global Cognitive Function (ACE) Score of ≤ 88 indicating cognitive impairment	Single Factor Model: device wear time, age, education and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Partition Model: All time units spent performing any of the activity categories and covariates were entered into the same model, and the independent effects of each behavioral variable were examined	Males Time in SB and cognitive function β = −0.069, p = 0.332 Females Time in SB and cognitive function β = −0.026, p = 0.758
Vancampfort et al. (2018) [52] China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia, and South Africa CS Study number in pinwheel = 31	Whole sample: n = 32,715, Mage = 62.1 (15.6), %F = 50 MCI n = 4082, Mage = 64.4 (17.0), %F = 55, SB time = 262 Population: mixed	Self-report (Global physical activity questionnaire)	Global Cognitive Function (Based on the recommendations of the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association)	sex, age, years of education, wealth, depression, obesity, number of chronic conditions, low PA, country	*OR [95% CI]* ≥ 8 h vs < 8/day SB and cognitive function 1.56 [1.27, 0.91], p < 0.001 1 h increase in SB 1.08 [1.05–1.11], p < 0.001
Vance et al. (2016) [49] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 32	n = 122, Mage = 70.5 (7.2), %F = 57, SB time = 803 Population: non-clinical	Self-report (Single item from the Physical activity questionnaire)	Processing Speed (AF, TMT A) Episodic Memory (CVLT-II) Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)	Not reported	Correlations with SB AF: r = −0.09, p = ns CVLT-II: r = 0.00, p = ns TMT A: r = 0.10, p = ns TMT B: r = −0.03, p = ns
Vasquez et al. (2017) [47] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 33	n = 7478, age range: 45–75, %F = 62, SB time = 738 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actical model 198–0200-06) Self-report (not reported)	Global Cognitive Function (cognitive function overall score) Episodic Memory (B-SEVLT) Processing Speed (Word fluency, DSST)	Sex	Device measured SB (each 10 min/day increase) β (SE): Cognitive Function overall score: − 0.044 (0.006), p < 0.0001 Word Fluency: − 0.004 (0.002), p = 0.0356 DSST: − 0.198 (0.022), p < 0.0001 SEVLT Sum3 trials: − 0.033 (0.005), p < 0.0001 SEVLT Free recall: − 0.033 (0.005), p < 0.0001 Self-reported sedentary time (each 10 min/day increase): Cognitive Function overall score: 0.019 (0.003), p < 0.0001 Word Fluency: 0.006 (0.001), p < 0.0001 DSST: 0.115 (0.014), p < 0.0001 SEVLT Sum3 trials: − 0.033 (0.005), p = 0.1154 SEVLT Free recall: 0.005 (0.003), p = 0.0583
Wanigatunga et al. (2018) [53] USA CS Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 34	n = 1275, Mage = 79 (5.0), %F = 67, SB time (min–max) = 24–512 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (DSC) Episodic Memory (HVLT-Revised) Working Memory (n-back) Cognitive Flexibility (Task switching paradigm) Executive Function (FLA) Global Cognitive Function (global composite: DSC, HVLT, n-back, task switching paradigm)	age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, income, marital status, BMI, smoking status, sleep quality, perceived stress, living with two or more morbid conditions	Associations b/w low and high total SB, β (SE) one-back high: − 0.012 (0.013) two back high: 0.001 (0.016) DSC high: − 2.03 (0.854), p < 0.05 task-switching (no) high: 86.22 (74.541) task-switching (yes) high: 117.953 (94.122) FLA congruent high: 24.541 (15.994) FLA incongruent high: 18.602 (23.158) HVLT immediate high: 0.385 (0.363) HVLT delayed high: 0.252 (0.197) global cognitive function: 0.085 (0.047)
Watts et al. (2018) [54] USA CS Prevalence Pattern Study number in pinwheel = 35	Mild AD n = 47, Mage = 73.1 (8.0), %F = 34, SB time = 584 Controls n = 53, Mage = 73.2 (6.5), %F = 69, SB time = 556.8 Population: mixed	Device (activPAL)	Global Cognitive Function (MMSE) Processing Speed (WAIS-DSST, block design, digits forward, AF, vegetable fluency, TMT A) Executive Function (Stroop) Cognitive Flexibility (Letter number sequencing, TMT B) Working Memory (Letter number sequencing, DSB, TMT B) Episodic Memory (logical memory immediate, logical memory delayed) Mild AD diagnosis: = 0.5 (very mild) or 1 (mild) Controls: = 0 (no dementia)	None	(whole sample, n = 83): MMSE: r = −0.082 WAIS: r = −0.053 Block Design: r = 0.044 Stroop Interference: r = −0.129 Letter Number Sequencing: r = 0.139 Logical Memory Immediate: r = −0.285, p = 0.015 Logical Memory Delayed: r = −0.267, p = 0.022 Digits Forward: r = −0.011 Digits Backward: r = 0.000 Animal fluency: r = −0.156 Vegetable fluency: r = −0.165 TMT A: r = 0.093 TMT B: r = 0.148
Wei et al. (2021) [43] USA CS Isotemporal Study number in pinwheel = 52	Sleep ≤ 7 h per night n = 1843, Mage = nr %F = ~ 50, SB time = nr Sleep > 7 h per night n = 1243, Mage = nr %F = ~ 43, SB time = nr Population: non-clinical	Self-report (The Global Physical Activity Questionnaire) Isotemporal: Replacing sleep, sedentary activity, walking/bicycling, MVPA with each other	Episodic Memory (CERAD Word Learning subtest) Processing Speed (DSST, AF)	age, sex, race/ethnicity, education level, smoking, and body mass index	*Sleep* ≤ *7 h per night; β (95% CI)* DSST: 0.002 (− 0.01, 0.01) CERAD: 0.01 (0.003, 0.02), p < 0.05 AF: 0.01 (0.003, 0.02), p < 0.05 *Sleep* > *7 h per night; β (95% CI)* DDST: 0.003 (− 0.01, 0.01) CERAD: 0.01 (− 0.003, 0.02) AF: 0.003 (− 0.01, 0.02) Among participants with sleep duration ≤ 7 h/night, replacing 30 min/day of sedentary activity with 30 min/day of MVPA or 30 min/day was associated with better cognition. Among participants with sleep duration > 7 h/night, replacing 30 min/day of sleep with 30 min/day of sedentary activity, walking/bicycling, or MVPA was associated with better cognition
Wu et al. (2020) [63] China CS Study number in pinwheel = 53	n = 308, Mage = 68.66 (5.37), %F = 57, SB time = 591 Population: non-clinical	Device (Actigraph)	Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)	Model 1: uncorrected Model 2: age, BMI, highest education, monthly average income. SED sedentary behavior, LPA light physical activity, MVPA moderate-vigorous physical activity, TPA total physical activity	*SB and Global Cognitive Function* Model 1: β = −0.020 SE = 0.001, p = 0.061 Male subgroup β = −0.003 SE = 0.001 p = 0.029
Zhu, W. et al. (2015) [67] USA CS Study number in pinwheel = 38	n = 7098, Mage = 70.1 (8.5), %F = 54.2, SB time = nr Population: clinical	Device (Actical)	Episodic Memory (word list learning, recall) Processing Speed (semantic fluency, letter fluency) Global Cognitive Function (items from MOCA)	Model 1 was unadjusted Model 3 was adjusted for age, sex, race, region of residence, education, ST%, BMI, hypertension, smoking, and diabetes mellitus	Not reported
Zlatar (2019) [66] USACS Study number in pinwheel = 37	n = 52, Mage = 72.3 (5.0), %F = 57.7, SB time = 548 Population: non-clinical	Device (ActiGraph)	Processing Speed (Letter fluency) Executive Function (colour word inhibition Working Memory (TMT B) Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B, WCST) Episodic Memory (Face naming score, CVLT, WMS-R)	Unadjusted	CWI switch: r = 0.118, p > 0.05 CWI: r = −0.011, p > 0.05 letter fluency: r = −0.129, p > 0.05 TMT B: r = −0.087, p > 0.05 WCST: r = 0.036, p > 0.05 face naming score: r = −0.232, p > 0.05 CVLT-II List A: r = 0.195, p > 0.05 CVLT-II short delay: r = 0.184, p > 0.05 CVLT-II long delay: r = 0.187, p > 0.05 WMS-R LMI: r = 0.248, p > 0.05 WMS-R LMII: r = 0.254, p > 0.05

Authors (year)
Country
Study design
Pinwheel number

Participants
Mean age (Mage)
% F (female)
SB time (min)

Device or self-report (measure of sedentary behaviour)

Domain (outcome measure)

Covariates adjusted for

Results

Amagasta et al. (2020) [77]

Japan CS Prevalence

Study number in pinwheel = 1

Cognitive decline

n = 48, Mage = 77.6 (5.4), %F = 52, SB time = 476

Non-cognitive decline

n = 463, Mage = 73.0 (5.4), %F = 53, SB time = 442

Population: mixed

Device (Active style Pro HJA-750C)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

≤ 23 = Cognitive Function Decline

Model 1: unadjusted

Model 4: Gender, age, education, BMI, living arrangements, working status, smoking, alcohol use, past history of stroke, medication for hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes

SB relative to other behaviours:

OR 1.06; 95% CI [0.42, 2.72]

SB and cognitive function:

Model 1: OR 1.30 [0.63, 2.70]

Model 4: OR 0.96 [0.38, 2.39]

Bollaert et al. (2019) [68]

USA CS Prevalence Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 39

Healthy group

n = 40, Mage = 66.5 (6.7), %F = 63, SB time = 534

Multiple Sclerosis group

n = 40, Mage = 65.3 (4.3), %F = 63, SB time = 540

Population: mixed

Device (Actigraph)

Processing Speed (PASAT)

Episodic Memory (CVLT-II)

Not stated

Total SB

Healthy Controls (r)

SDMT: − 0.38

CVLT-II: − 0.13

BVMT-R: − 0.03

PASAT: − 0.11

MS Group (r)

SDMT: − 0.15

CVLT-II: 0.20

BVMT-R: − 0.08

PASAT: 0.08

Bojsen-Moller et al. (2019) [50]

Sweden CS

Study number in pinwheel = 2

n = 334, Mage = 42.4 (9.1), %F = 68, SB time = 565

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph GT3X)

Processing Speed (TMT A, Digit Symbol)

Working Memory (DSB, N-back (2-back), AOS, TMT B)

Episodic Memory (Free Recall, Word Recognition)

Executive Function (Stroop)

Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)

Model 2: age, gender, education, % of daytime in sedentary behaviour

Model 4: age, gender, education, % of daytime in sedentary behaviour and VO2max

SB and cognitive outcomes: β, [95% CI]

Model 2

Digit symbol: 0.004 [− 0.145, 0.138]

Free recall: 0.125 [− 0.011, 0.266], p < 0.05

Digit span backwards: 0.003 [− 0.139, 0.146]

2-back (accuracy): − 0.022 [− 0.165, 0.120]

2-back (reaction time): − 0.053 [− 0.195, 0.087]

Word recognition: 0.035 [− 0.107, 0.177]

AOS (recalled sets): − 0.011 [− 0.159, 0.136]

AOS (accuracy): − 0.022 [− 0.165, 0.120]

Stroop: 0.012 [− 0.131, 0.155]

TMT A: 0.042 [− 0.103, 0.190]

TMT B: − 0.032 [− 0.194, 0.126]

Model 4

Digit symbol: − 0.047 [− 0.219, 0.126]

Free recall: 0.136 [− 0.003, 0.280], p < 0.05

Digit span backwards: − 0.003 [− 0.149, 0.142]

2-back (accuracy): 0.060 [− 0.085, 0.207]

2-back (reaction time): − 0.052 [− 0.198, 0.092]

Word recognition: 0.071 [− 0.071, 0.215]

AOS (recalled sets): 0.010 [− 0.140, 0.161]

AOS (accuracy): − 0.006 [− 0.152, 0.140]

Stroop: − 0.016 [− 0.162, 0.129]

TMT A: 0.04 [− 0.108, 0.191]

TMT B: − 0.044 [− 0.210, 0.118]

Burzynska et al. (2020) [69]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 40

n = 228, Mage = 65.3 (4.5)

%F = 68, SB time = 537

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (DS, Digit Symbol, Pattern comparison, letter comparison)

Episodic Memory (Word recall, Logical memory, Paired associates)

Model 1: age, sex, education, adult education, light, and moderate to vigorous PA

β (SE)

Processing speed:

− 0.009 (0.001) p = 0.900

Episodic Memory:

β = 0.088 (0.001) p = 0.245

Cukic et al. (2018) [35]

Scotland CS/LO Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 3^a,b,c

LBC1936 cohort

n = 271, Mage = 79.0 (0.4)

% F = 48, SB time = 627

Population: non-clinical

3^a

Device (activPal3)

Global Cognitive Function (general cognitive ability factor (g) computed from 6 tests taken from the WAIS (Matrix Reasoning, Block Design, Letter-Number Sequencing, Symbol Search, DSB, and Digit Symbol), Moray Houst Test No. 12 (MHT), Alice Heim 4 test (AH4))

Processing Speed (Four-choice RT)

Motor Skills and Construction (Simple RT)

Model 1: age and sex

Model 3: age, sex, education, long standing illness

Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI]

Model 1

g-wave 4: − 0.06 [− 0.18, 0.06], p = 0.36

Simple RT: 0.03 [− 0.09, 0.15], p = 0.61

Choice RT: − 0.10 [− 0.22, 0.02], p = 0.09

MHT change age 11–79: − 0.09 [− 0.21, 0.03], p = 13

Model 3

g-factor: − 0.01 [− 0.15, 0.13], p = 0.9

Simple RT: 0.02 [− 0.1, 0.14], p = 0.77

Choice RT: − 0.12 [− 0.24, 1.0], p = 0.05

MHT change age 11–79: − 0.06 [− 0.20, 0.08], p = 0.34

Twenty-07 1950’s cohort

n = 310, Mage = 64.6 (0.9), %F = 53.2, SB time (%) = 60.8

Population: non-clinical

3^b

Model 1: age and sex

Model 4: age, sex, education, long standing illness, employment status

Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI]

Model 1

AH4 wave 5: − 0.08 [− 0.04, 0.20], p = 0.18

Simple RT wave 5: 0.12 [0.00, 0.24], p = 0.04

Choice RT wave 5: 0.09 [− 0.03, 0.21], p = 0.13

Model 4

AH4 wave 5: − 0.06 [− 0.20, 0.08], p = 0.39

Simple RT: 0.06 [− 0.06, 0.18], p = 0.26

Choice RT: 0.05 [− 0.07, 0.17], p = 0.41

Twenty-07 1930’s cohort

n = 119, Mage = 83.4 (0.6), %F = 55, SB time (%) = 68

Population: non-clinical

3^c

Model 1: age and sex

Model 3: age, sex, education, long standing illness

Cog ability & total SB: β, [95% CI]

Model 1

AH4 wave 1: − 0.08 [− 0.28, 0.12], p = 0.41

AH4 wave 5: − 0.07 [− 0.27, 0.13], p = 0.49

Simple RT wave 5: 0.04 [− 0.14, 0.22], p = 0.70

Choice RT wave 5: 0.10 [− 0.14, 0.34], p = 0.42

Model 3

AH4 wave 1: − 0.08 [− 0.30, 0.14], p = 0.45

AH4 wave 5: − 0.04 [− 0.26, 0.18], p = 0.75

Simple RT wave 5: 0.02 [− 0.18, 0.22], p = 0.82

Choice RT wave 5: 0.10 [− 0.15, 0.35], p = 0.42

Ehlers et al. (2018) [41]

USA CS Isotemporal

Study number in pinwheel = 5

n = 271, Mage = 57.8 (9.5), %F = 100, SB time = 600

Population: clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Isotemporal: Substituting 30 min of sedentary time with 30 min of light-intensity activity, MVPA, and sleep

Processing Speed (TMT A)

Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B, Task-switching)

Working Memory (TMT B)

Single effect: age, months of hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, total time

Partition effect: age, months of hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, total time, other behaviours

Total SB time and cognitive function

B 95% CI

Single effect

Task switch-switch: 2.06 [− 7.07, 11.16]

Task switch-stay: − 1.47 [− 9.62, 6.69]

TMT A: − 0.97 [− 1.85, − 0.08], p < 0.05

TMT B: − 1.19 [− 2.41, 0.03]

Partition effect

Task switch-switch: − 8.76 [− 22.26, 4.76]

Task switch-stay: − 5.94 [− 18.07, 6.18]

TMT A: − 0.75 [− 2.05, 0.55]

TMT B: − 0.92 [− 2.71, 0.87]

Replacing 30 min of sedentary time with 30 min of MVPA yielded faster reaction times on Task-Switch stay (B = −29.37, p = 0.04) and switch (B = −39.49, p = 0.02) trials

Replacing sedentary time with light-intensity activity was associated with slower Trails A (B = 1.55 p = 0.002) and Trails B (B = 1.69, p = 0.02) completion

Ekblom et al. (2019) [90]

Sweden CS

Study number in pinwheel = 6

n = 216, age range = 54–66, %F = 56, SB time = 461

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Episodic Memory (Verbal Memory)

Motor Skills and Construction (Rey Complex Figure)

Processing Speed (SDMT, TMT A, Stroop 1)

Cognitive Flexibility & Working Memory (TMT B)

Executive Function (Stroop 2 & 3)

age, gender, smoking, education, born outside Sweden

SB and cognitive function (β)

verbal memory (verbatim): 0.136, p < 0.05

verbal memory (direct Syn): 0.137, p < 0.05

verbal memory (delayed Verbatim): 0.119, p < 0.1

verbal memory (delayed Syn): 0.134, p < 0.1

Stroop 1: not significant

Stroop 2: − 0.141, p < 0.05

Stroop 3: − 0.137, p < 0.01

SDMT: 0.126, p < 0.01

TMT A: not significant

TMT B: − 0.113, p < 0.01

RCF 1: 0.109, p = 0.139

RCF 2: 0.071, p = 0.342

RCF 3: − 0.027, p = 0.717

English et al. (2016) [74]

Australia

CS Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 7

n = 50, Mage = 67.2 (11.6), % F = 34, SB = nr

Population: clinical

Device (activPAL)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)

waking hours

MoCA with total sitting time

r = 0.153, p = 0.3

Ezeugwu et al. (2017) [70]

Canada CS Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 8

n = 30, Mage = 63.8 (12.3), %F = 43, SB time = 674

Population: clinical

Device (activPAL)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)

Not reported

SB time and MoCA

r = −0.08, p > 0.05

Falck et al. (2017) [55]

Canada CS Prevalence Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 10

Probable MCI

n = 81, Mage = 72.5 (7.6), %F = 60, SB time = 595

Without MCI

n = 69, Mage = 69.4 (6.4), %F = 78, SB time = 542

Population: mixed

Device (MotionWatch8)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA, ADAS-Cog Plus)

Probable MCI = MoCA < 26

Age, sex, education

SB and ADAS-Cog Plus (β)

% Sedentary time: 0.007, p = 0.089

Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.061, p = 0.016

SB and ADAS-Cog Plus Based on MCI Status (β)

non-MCI

% Sedentary time: 0.012, p = 0.038

Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.075, p = 0.064

MCI

% Sedentary time: < 0.001, p = 0.948

Average 30 + min bouts/day: 0.033, p = 0.282

Fanning et al. (2017) [42]

USA CS Isotemporal

Study number in pinwheel = 12

n = 247, Mage = 65.4 (4.6), %F = 68, SB time = 534

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Isotemporal: Substituting 30 min of sedentary behavior with 30 min of light activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), or sleep

Working Memory (computer-based task)

Cognitive Flexibility (Task-switching)

Age, gender, race

SB and Working memory

2-item accuracy r = −0.106, p = 0.133

3-item accuracy r = −0.040, p = 0.575

4-item accuracy r = −0.081, p = 0.249

2-item reaction time r = 0.052, p = 0.460

3-item reaction time r = 0.013, p = 0.851

4-item reaction time r = 0.040, p = 0.566

SB and Cognitive Flexibility

Single avg accuracy: r = −0.061, p = 0.391

Mixed repeat avg acc: r = 0.045, p = 0.532

Mixed switch avg acc: r = 0.006, p = 0.933

Global switch cost acc: r = −0.086, p = 0.228

Local switch cost acc: r = 0.084, p = 0.240

Single avg RT: r = 0.019, p = 0.794

Mixed repeat avg RT: r = 0.067, p = 0.352

Mixed switch avg RT: r = 0.070, p = 0.329

Global switch cost RT: r = 0.046, p = 0.525

Local switch cost RT: r = 0.026, p = 0.712

Substitution of sedentary time with MVPA was associated with higher accuracy on 2-item (B = .03, p = .01) and 3-item (B = .02, p = .04) working memory tasks, and with faster reaction times on single (B = −23.12, p = .03) and mixed-repeated task-switching blocks (B = −27.06, p = .04)

Substitution of sedentary time with sleep was associated with marginally faster reaction time on mixed-repeated task-switching blocks (B = −12.20, p = .07) and faster reaction time on mixed-switch blocks (B = 17.21, p = .05), as well as reduced global reaction time switch cost (B = −16.86, p = .01)

García-Hermoso et al. (2018) [48]

Chile

Study number in pinwheel = 13

n = 989, Mage = 74.1 (7.0), %F = 61, SB time = 225

Population: mixed

Self-report (Global Physical Activity Questionnaire)

Global Cognitive Function (modified-MMSE)

≤ 13 or less considered cognitively impaired

Model 1: age, sex, education level, BMI, social characteristics (living alone), alcohol and drug use, tobacco intake, depression

Model 2: age, sex, BMI, social characteristics (education level and living alone), alcohol and drug use, tobacco intake, depression, MVPA

Odds Ratio [95% CI]

1.00, non-sedentary/active (ref group)

1.63 [0.92 to 4.75] non-sed/inactive, p = 0.084

1.91 [1.83 to 3.75] sed/active, p = 0.011

4.65 [2.50 to 6.31] sed/inactive, p < 0.001

SB and cognition

Model 1: β = −0.063, p = < 0.001

Model 2: β = −0.046, p = < 0.05

Hayes et al. (2015) [61]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 15

n = 31, Mage = 64.5 (7.0), %F = 58, SB time = 565

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Episodic Memory (BVMT-Revised and the Faces subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition, verbal memory Z score, CVLT logical memory recall)

Executive Function

(TMT, VF from the Delis Kaplan Executive Function System, DSB and mental arithmetic from WAIS and the WCST)

Age, gender, education, depression, hypertension, wear time

SB and cognition

Visuospatial memory test

pr = −0.41, p < 0.05

face-name memory task

pr = −0.53, p < 0.05

verbal memory: nr

Executive Function: nr

Hubbard et al. (2015) [79]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 16

n = 82, Mage = 49.0 (9.1), %F = 76, SB time = 582

Population: clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Processing Speed (SDMT)

Not reported

SB and cognition

overall: r = −0.12, p = 0.29

mild: r = −0.14, p = 0.38

moderate: r = 0.06, p = 0.71

Iso-Markku et al. (2018) [78]

Finland CS

Study number in pinwheel = 17

n = 726, Mage = 72.9 (1.0), %F = 52, SB time = 537

Population: non-clinical

Device (Hookie AM20)

Global Cognitive Function (Telephone assessment and interview for Cognitive Status (orientation, serial subtraction, word recall, semantics, sentence repetition, linguistic skills, and attention)

Model 1: age, sex, accelerometer wear time, mean daily MET

Model 2: age, sex, accelerometer wear time, BMI, living condition, years of education, mean daily MET

Total cog score and SB Between-family analyses β (95% CI)

Model 1: − 0.20 (− 0.41 to 0.01), p > 0.05

Model 2: − 0.21 (0.42 to − 0.003), p < 0.05

Johnson et al. (2016) [65]

Australia CS

Study number in pinwheel = 18

n = 188, Mage = 64.0 (7.3), %F = 54, SB time = 582

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (TMT A)

Cognitive Flexibility & Working Memory (TMT B)

Episodic Memory (HVLT-R)

age, gender, level of education, waist to hip ratio, history of cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, HVLT total recall score (screening tool for MCI)

SB and cognitive function

TMT A: r = 0.082, p = ns

TMT B: r = 0.050, p = ns

HVLT: r = 0.001 p = ns

Kojima et al. (2019) [40]

Japan LO

Study number in pinwheel = 43

n = 15, Mage = 78.0 (11.6), %F = 40

SB time = 1312

Population: clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (SDMT)

Working Memory (Symbol Trails, Design Memory)

Cognitive Flexibility (Symbol Trails, Symbol Cancellation)

Executive Function (Symbol Cancellation, Mazes)

Not stated

4 months

Value of sedentary behavior significantly decreased over four months (p < 0.05)

Less sedentary behavior was significantly correlated with better SDMT scores (r = −0.355, p = 0.005)

Koolhaas et al. (2019) [37]

Netherlands CS/LO

Study number in pinwheel = 19

n = 1841, Mage = 62.6 (9.3), %F = 54, SB time = 528

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE, g-factor test battery: MMSE, Stroop, letter-digit substitution task, VF15-word learning test, Purdue pegboard test)

Model 1: age, sex, cohort, awake time

Model 3: age, sex, cohort, awake time, education, occupational status, marital status, smoking, BMI, PA and disability score

Cross-sectional β [95% CI]

SB and g-factor

Model 1: − 0.03 [− 0.05, − 0.01], p = 0.005

Model 3: − 0.01 [− 0.03, 0.01], p = 0.23

SB and MMSE

Model 1: − 0.01 [− 0.06, 0.04], p = 0.66

Model 3: − 0.0004 [− 0.05, 0.05], p = 0.98

5.7-year follow-up

g-factor: 0.18-point (SD: 0.51) decline

MMSE score: 0.06-point decline (SD: 1.89)

Ku et al. (2017) [36]

Taiwan CS/LO

Study number in pinwheel = 20

n = 274, Mage = 74.5 (6.1), %F = 54, SB time = categories

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Global Cognitive Function (AD8)

Model 1: baseline cognitive status, sex, age, and wear time of accelerometer

Model 3: baseline cognitive status, sex, age, years of formal education, marital status, income source, smoking, number of comorbidities, depressive symptoms, wear time of accelerometer, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and activities of daily living

SB time & cognitive ability (baseline)

r = 0.15, p = < 0.05

SB time & cognitive ability (2-year follow-up)

r = 0.21, p = < 0 .001

Adjusted rate ratio [95% CI]

Model 1: 1.13 [1.04, 1.22), p = 0.002

Model 3: 1.10 [1.00, 1.19], p = 0.047

Lee et al. (2013) [39]

Japan LO

Study number in pinwheel = 21

n = 550, Mage = nr, %F = 48, SB time = nr

Population: non-clinical

Self-report (Trained interviewers asked subjects about time spent in physical activity for the past 12 months)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Incidence and Odds of Significant cognitive decline (− 3 points on MMSE)

Model 1: age, sex, educational level

Model 3: age, sex, educational level, BMI, initial MMSE score, smoking status, self-rated health, Depression, sleep duration, whether participant was working, hypertension, myocardial infarction, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis and MVPA

Longitudinal (8-years)

OR [95% CI]

Model 1: 1.97, 95% [1.01, 3.86]

Model 3: 3.03 [1.29, 7.14]

Leung et al. (2017) [76]

Canada CS

Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 22

n = 114, Mage = 86.7 (7.5), %F = 85, SB = nr

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)

Not reported

% waking time in SB and MoCA:

p > 0.05

Lopes et al. (2015) [82]

Brazil CS

Study number in pinwheel = 23

n = 2471, Mage = nr, %F = 60, SB time = categories

Population: mixed

Self-report (The International physical activity questionnaire)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

≤ 25 = low cognitive performance (LCP)

> 25 = high cognitive performance

Not reported

LCP prevalence [95% CI]

1st tertile (< 180 min/day): 38.20 [32.10, 44.69]

2nd tertile (> 180 < 308.61 min/day): 28.42 [22.70, 34.93]

3rd tertile (> 308.61 min/day): 29.34 [24.48, 34.72]

LCP Prevalence ratio (PR) [95% CI]

2nd tertile [> 180 ≤ 308.61 min/day]

Crude PR, 0.74 [0.60, 0.91]

Adjusted PR, 0.73 [0.59, 0.89], p < 0.05

3rd tertile [> 380.61 min/day]

Crude PR, 0.76 [0.62, 0.93]

Adjusted PR, 0.75 (0.61–0.91), p < 0.05

Lu et al. (2018) [84]

Hong Kong CS Prevalence Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 24

Healthy: n = 271, Mage = 81.9 (3.5), %F = 38

Low MoCA: n = 252, Mage = 83.4 (4.0), %F = 48

MCI: n = 105, Mage = 83.6 (3.7), %F = 49

AD: n = 182, Mage = 80.8 (5.9), %F = 65

Population: mixed

Device (Actigraph)

Global Cognitive Function (Hong Kong version of (MoCA)

Model 1: age, gender, wear time

Model 2: age, gender, wear time, years of education, BMI, unusual gait speed, living status, disease burden

Time in SB (min/day):

Controls = 546.7

Low MoCA = 534.1

MCI = 516.9

AD = 601.2

Maasakkers et al. (2020) [38]

Australia, USA, Japan, and Singapore CS/LO

Study number in pinwheel = 25^a,b,c,d

PATH Cohort

n = 1552, Mage = 75.1 (1.5), %F = 49, SB time = 426

Population: non-clinical

25^a

Self-report (asked two questions relating to SB on a usual day, which distinguished between weekdays and weekend days)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Unadjusted model: none

Model 3: age, gender, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA

Cross-sectional

Unadjusted

B = −0.003 [− 0.005, 0.001], p = 0.79

Model 3

B = 0.001 [− 0.021, 0.022], p = 0.96

SALSA Cohort

n = 1663, Mage = 70.2 (6.8), %F = 58, SB time = 276

Population: non-clinical

25^b

Self-report (administered three questions of SB related to sitting at work, at home, and while driving a car during a regular week)

Global Cognitive Function (3MS)

Unadjusted model: none

Model 2: age, gender, ethnicity, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA

Cross-sectional (B)

Unadjusted: 0.33 [0.027, 0.632], p = 0.03

Model 2: − 0.043 [− 0.317, 0.230], p = 0.76

Longitudinal (8.1-year follow-up)

Unadjusted: 0.008 [− 0.038, 0.053], p = 0.74

Model 2: − 0.011 [− 0.058, 0.037], p = 0.66

SGS Cohort

n = 2597, Mage = 73.4 (6.1), %F = 56, SB time = 444

Population: non-clinical

25^c

Device (Active style Pro HJA-350IT)

Global Cognitive Function

(MMSE)

Unadjusted model: none

Model 2: age, gender, education, income, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, living status, perceived health, morbidities, depression and PA

Cross-sectional (B)

Unadjusted: − 0.005 [− 0.015, 0.004], p = 0.25

Model 2: 0.006 [− 0.006, 0.018], p = 0.35

Longitudinal (2-year follow-up)

Unadjusted: − 0.003 [− 0.009, 0.004], p = 0.40

Model 2: − 0.001 [− 0.010, 0.007], p = 0.73

SLAS2 Cohort

n = 3087, Mage = 66.7 (7.8), %F = 63, SB time = 366

Population: non-clinical

25^d

Self-report (asked two questions relating to SB on a usual day, which distinguished between weekdays and weekend days)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Model 1: unadjusted

Model 2: age, gender, ethnicity, education, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, marital status, living status, perceived health, morbidities, blood pressure, sleep quality, depression and PA

Cross-sectional (B)

Unadjusted: 0.04 [− 0.004, 0.083], p = 0.08

Model 2: 0.118 [0.075, 0.160], p = < 0.001

Longitudinal (3.8-year follow-up)

Unadjusted: − 0.007 [− 0.021, 0.007], p = 0.32

Model 2: − 0.011 [− 0.027, 0.004], p = 0.16

Marinac et al. (2019) [64]

USA CS Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 26

n = 30, Mage = 62.2 (7.8), %F = 100, SB time = 498

Population: clinical

Device (activPAL)

Cognitive Flexibility (The Dimensional Change Card Sort Test)

Executive Function (FLA)

Episodic Memory (Picture Sequence Memory Test)

Working Memory (List Sorting)

Processing Speed (Pattern Comparison Test)

device wear time, education, employment status, MVPA, chemotherapy status

Total sitting time: (b, p)

Executive Function: 0.21, 0.88

Cognitive Flexibility: − 2.75, 0.06

Episodic memory: 2.69, 0.34

Working memory: − 1.01, 0.63

Processing speed: − 2.47, 0.32

Olanrewaju et al. (2020) [80]

Ireland CS

Study number in pinwheel = 47

n = 8163, Mage = 63.5 (9.2), %F = 52, SB time = 295

Population: non-clinical

Self-report (International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ))

Processing Speed (AF)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Episodic Memory (Immediate and delayed recall)

Age, sex, social class

Episodic memory: β (95% CI)

0.01 (− 0.004, 0.02), p > 0.05

Processing Speed: β (95% CI)

0.003 (− 0.01, 0.01), p > 0.05

Global Cognitive Function: β (95% CI)

0.01 (− 0.01, 0.02), p > 0.05

Rosenberg, et al. (2016) [51]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 27

n = 307, Mage = 83.6 (6.4), %F = 72, SB time = 516

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)

Processing Speed (TMT A)

age, gender, marital status, educational status, MVPA, wear time

Objective Sedentary Time (β (SE))

TMT A: − 0.02 (0.02) p = 0.33

TMT B: − 0.03 (0.02) p = 0.18

n = 280, SB time = 660

Population: non-clinical

Self-report (Sedentary Behaviour Questionnaire)

Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)

Processing Speed (TMT A)

age, gender, marital status, educational status, MVPA

Self-reported SB (β(SE))

TMT A: − 0.01 (0.00) p = < 0.01

TMT B: 0.01 (0.01) p = 0.08

Siddarth et al., (2018) [81]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 28

n = 35, Mage = 60.4 (8.1), %F = 71, SB time = 432

Population: non-clinical

Self-report [International Physical Activity Questionnaire modified for older adults (average number of hours spent sitting)]

Episodic Memory (Verbal paired association, Selective reminding scores)

Processing Speed (Digit symbol scores)

age

Verbal paired association: r = 0.12 p = 0.5

Selective reminding scores: r = 0.28 p = 0.11

Digit symbol scores: r = −0.18 p = 0.34

Snethen et al. (2014) [44]

USA CS 29

Study number in pinwheel = 29

n = 30, Mage = 50.6 (nr), %F = 10, SB time = 406

Population: clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Cognitive Flexibility (WCST)

Diagnosis, sex, age, BMI

r = 0.04, p > 0.05

Stubbs et al. (2017) [56]

Taiwan CS

Study number in pinwheel = 30

Schizophrenia

n = 199, Mage = 44.0 (9.9), %F = 39, SB time = 581

Controls

n = 60, Mage = 41.9 (9.6), %F = 43, SB time = 336

Population: mixed

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (COG)

Motor Skills and Construction (Reaction Test, GPT)

Model 1: age, sex, education, weight status, smoking, alcohol consumption, medications, PANSS, MetS

Model 2: age, sex, education, weight status, smoking, alcohol consumption, medications, PANSS, MetS, Physical activity energy expenditure

Total SB and cognitive function outcomes

Schizophrenia group

COG: p = 0.403

GPT: p = 0.020

Reaction Time reaction (msec): p = 0.984

Reaction Time motor (msec): p = 0.070

control group

COG: p = 0.295

GPT: p = 0.016

Reaction Time reaction (msec): p = 0.016

Reaction Time motor (msec): p = 0.378

Comparing means b/w low and high SB in Patients with Schizophrenia

Reaction Time reaction (msec) p = 0.803

669.5 (SD = 532.2) low sed

652.3 (SD = 410.0) high sed

Reaction Time motor (msec), p = 0.037

355.2 (SD = 170.8) low sed

421.3 (SD = 252.7) high sed

COG, p = 0.442

176.9 (SD = 95.1) low sed

165.8 (SD = 107.1) high sed

GPT: p = 0.034

131.6 (SD = 44.1) low sed

145.4 (SD = 46.7) high sed

Suzuki et al. (2020) [57]

Japan CS Prevalence

Study number in pinwheel = 48

Males

n = 68, Mage = 88.0 (1.0), %F = 0, SB time = 855

Females

n = 68, Mage = 88.0 (0.9), %F = 100, SB time = 798

Population: mixed

Device (Actigraph)

Global Cognitive Function (ACE)

Score of ≤ 88 indicating cognitive impairment

Single Factor Model: device wear time, age, education and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale

Partition Model: All time units spent performing any of the activity categories and covariates were entered into the same model, and the independent effects of each behavioral variable were examined

Males

Time in SB and cognitive function

β = −0.069, p = 0.332

Females

Time in SB and cognitive function

β = −0.026, p = 0.758

Vancampfort et al. (2018) [52]

China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia, and South Africa CS

Study number in pinwheel = 31

Whole sample: n = 32,715, Mage = 62.1 (15.6), %F = 50

MCI

n = 4082, Mage = 64.4 (17.0), %F = 55, SB time = 262

Population: mixed

Self-report (Global physical activity questionnaire)

Global Cognitive Function (Based on the recommendations of the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association)

sex, age, years of education, wealth, depression, obesity, number of chronic conditions, low PA, country

OR [95% CI]

≥ 8 h vs < 8/day SB and cognitive function

1.56 [1.27, 0.91], p < 0.001

1 h increase in SB

1.08 [1.05–1.11], p < 0.001

Vance et al. (2016) [49]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 32

n = 122, Mage = 70.5 (7.2), %F = 57, SB time = 803

Population: non-clinical

Self-report (Single item from the Physical activity questionnaire)

Processing Speed (AF, TMT A)

Episodic Memory (CVLT-II)

Working Memory & Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B)

Not reported

Correlations with SB

AF: r = −0.09, p = ns

CVLT-II: r = 0.00, p = ns

TMT A: r = 0.10, p = ns

TMT B: r = −0.03, p = ns

Vasquez et al. (2017) [47]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 33

n = 7478, age range: 45–75, %F = 62, SB time = 738

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actical model 198–0200-06)

Self-report (not reported)

Global Cognitive Function (cognitive function overall score)

Episodic Memory (B-SEVLT)

Processing Speed (Word fluency, DSST)

Sex

Device measured SB (each 10 min/day increase) β (SE):

Cognitive Function overall score: − 0.044 (0.006), p < 0.0001

Word Fluency: − 0.004 (0.002), p = 0.0356

DSST: − 0.198 (0.022), p < 0.0001

SEVLT Sum3 trials: − 0.033 (0.005), p < 0.0001

SEVLT Free recall: − 0.033 (0.005), p < 0.0001

Self-reported sedentary time (each 10 min/day increase):

Cognitive Function overall score: 0.019 (0.003), p < 0.0001

Word Fluency: 0.006 (0.001), p < 0.0001

DSST: 0.115 (0.014), p < 0.0001

SEVLT Sum3 trials: − 0.033 (0.005), p = 0.1154

SEVLT Free recall: 0.005 (0.003), p = 0.0583

Wanigatunga et al. (2018) [53]

USA CS Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 34

n = 1275, Mage = 79 (5.0), %F = 67, SB time (min–max) = 24–512

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (DSC)

Episodic Memory (HVLT-Revised)

Working Memory (n-back)

Cognitive Flexibility (Task switching paradigm)

Executive Function (FLA)

Global Cognitive Function (global composite: DSC, HVLT, n-back, task switching paradigm)

age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, income, marital status, BMI, smoking status, sleep quality, perceived stress, living with two or more morbid conditions

Associations b/w low and high total SB, β (SE)

one-back high: − 0.012 (0.013)

two back high: 0.001 (0.016)

DSC high: − 2.03 (0.854), p < 0.05

task-switching (no) high: 86.22 (74.541)

task-switching (yes) high: 117.953 (94.122)

FLA congruent high: 24.541 (15.994)

FLA incongruent high: 18.602 (23.158)

HVLT immediate high: 0.385 (0.363)

HVLT delayed high: 0.252 (0.197)

global cognitive function: 0.085 (0.047)

Watts et al. (2018) [54]

USA CS Prevalence Pattern

Study number in pinwheel = 35

Mild AD

n = 47, Mage = 73.1 (8.0), %F = 34, SB time = 584

Controls

n = 53, Mage = 73.2 (6.5), %F = 69, SB time = 556.8

Population: mixed

Device (activPAL)

Global Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Processing Speed (WAIS-DSST, block design, digits forward, AF, vegetable fluency, TMT A)

Executive Function (Stroop)

Cognitive Flexibility (Letter number sequencing, TMT B)

Working Memory (Letter number sequencing, DSB, TMT B)

Episodic Memory (logical memory immediate, logical memory delayed)

Mild AD diagnosis:

= 0.5 (very mild) or 1 (mild)

Controls:

= 0 (no dementia)

None

(whole sample, n = 83):

MMSE: r = −0.082

WAIS: r = −0.053

Block Design: r = 0.044

Stroop Interference: r = −0.129

Letter Number Sequencing: r = 0.139

Logical Memory Immediate: r = −0.285, p = 0.015

Logical Memory Delayed: r = −0.267, p = 0.022

Digits Forward: r = −0.011

Digits Backward: r = 0.000

Animal fluency: r = −0.156

Vegetable fluency: r = −0.165

TMT A: r = 0.093

TMT B: r = 0.148

Wei et al. (2021) [43]

USA CS

Isotemporal

Study number in pinwheel = 52

Sleep ≤ 7 h per night

n = 1843, Mage = nr

%F = ~ 50, SB time = nr

Sleep > 7 h per night

n = 1243, Mage = nr

%F = ~ 43, SB time = nr

Population: non-clinical

Self-report (The Global Physical Activity Questionnaire)

Isotemporal: Replacing sleep, sedentary activity, walking/bicycling, MVPA with each other

Episodic Memory (CERAD Word Learning subtest)

Processing Speed (DSST, AF)

age, sex, race/ethnicity, education level, smoking, and body mass index

Sleep ≤ 7 h per night; β (95% CI)

DSST: 0.002 (− 0.01, 0.01)

CERAD: 0.01 (0.003, 0.02), p < 0.05

AF: 0.01 (0.003, 0.02), p < 0.05

Sleep > 7 h per night; β (95% CI)

DDST: 0.003 (− 0.01, 0.01)

CERAD: 0.01 (− 0.003, 0.02)

AF: 0.003 (− 0.01, 0.02)

Among participants with sleep duration ≤ 7 h/night, replacing 30 min/day of sedentary activity with 30 min/day of MVPA or 30 min/day was associated with better cognition. Among participants with sleep duration > 7 h/night, replacing 30 min/day of sleep with 30 min/day of sedentary activity, walking/bicycling, or MVPA was associated with better cognition

Wu et al. (2020) [63]

China CS

Study number in pinwheel = 53

n = 308, Mage = 68.66 (5.37), %F = 57, SB time = 591

Population: non-clinical

Device (Actigraph)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)

Model 1: uncorrected

Model 2: age, BMI, highest education, monthly average income. SED sedentary behavior, LPA light physical activity, MVPA moderate-vigorous physical activity, TPA total physical activity

SB and Global Cognitive Function

Model 1:

β = −0.020 SE = 0.001, p = 0.061

Male subgroup

β = −0.003 SE = 0.001 p = 0.029

Zhu, W. et al. (2015) [67]

USA CS

Study number in pinwheel = 38

n = 7098, Mage = 70.1 (8.5), %F = 54.2, SB time = nr

Population: clinical

Device (Actical)

Episodic Memory (word list learning, recall)

Processing Speed (semantic fluency, letter fluency)

Global Cognitive Function (items from MOCA)

Model 1 was unadjusted

Model 3 was adjusted for age, sex, race, region of residence, education, ST%, BMI, hypertension, smoking, and diabetes mellitus

Not reported

Zlatar (2019) [66]

USACS

Study number in pinwheel = 37

n = 52, Mage = 72.3 (5.0), %F = 57.7, SB time = 548

Population: non-clinical

Device (ActiGraph)

Processing Speed (Letter fluency)

Executive Function (colour word inhibition

Working Memory (TMT B)

Cognitive Flexibility (TMT B, WCST)

Episodic Memory (Face naming score, CVLT, WMS-R)

Unadjusted

CWI switch: r = 0.118, p > 0.05

CWI: r = −0.011, p > 0.05

letter fluency: r = −0.129, p > 0.05

TMT B: r = −0.087, p > 0.05

WCST: r = 0.036, p > 0.05

face naming score: r = −0.232, p > 0.05

CVLT-II List A: r = 0.195, p > 0.05

CVLT-II short delay: r = 0.184, p > 0.05

CVLT-II long delay: r = 0.187, p > 0.05

WMS-R LMI: r = 0.248, p > 0.05

WMS-R LMII: r = 0.254, p > 0.05

ACE Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination, AF Animal Fluency, AOS Automated Operation Span, B-SEVLT Brief Spanish English Verbal learning Test, BVMT Brief Visuospatial Memory Test, CVLT California Verbal Learning Test, AD8 Chinese version of the Ascertain Dementia 8-item questionnaire, COG Cognitrone Test, CS Cross Sectional, DSB Digit Span Backwards, DSC Digit Symbol Coding, DSST Digit Symbol Substitution Task, FLA Flanker or Eriksen Flanker Test, GPT Grooved Pegboard Test, HVLT Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, LO Longitudinal, MMSE Mini-Mental State Examination, MoCA Montreal Cognitive Assessment, nr Not reported, PASAT Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, RT Reaction Time, SB Sedentary Behaviour, SDMT Symbol Digit Modalities Test, TMT A Trail Making Test A, TMT B Trail Making Test B, VF Verbal Fluency, WAIS Wecshler Adult Intelligence Scale, WMS-R Wechsler Memory Scale-revised, WCST Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, 3MS Modified Mini Mental State Examination