Figure 2.

Lactate signaling function in the malignant transformation process. The intensification of glycolysis in tumor cells leads to high lactate production; lactate anions along with protons are cotransported through MCT4 transporters in the extracellular medium that provides acidification of the tumor microenvironment and high extracellular lactate concentration. By binding to GPR81 receptors on different cell types, lactate promotes the expression of pro-oncogenic genes, immune suppression, angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, and some other effects.