Table 2.

The advantages and shortcomings of the four most common types of nanomaterials for combating biofilms

Nanomaterials	Advantages	Shortcomings	Refs.
Metal (Oxide) Nanoparticles	* Controllable long‐term stability *Long‐lasting drug release *High surface‐to‐volume ratio *Abundantly available and has the ability to adapt to extreme conditions.	*Potential toxicity of long‐lasting exposure *Low specificity to the target tissues	[280, 281, 282]
Carbon‐based Nanomaterials	*Excellent physicochemical properties and structural characteristics *Environmentally benign nature *Good biocompatibility	*High production costs *Limited in penetrate and target eradicating biofilms.	[283, 284]
Polymer‐based Nanoparticles	*As drug carriers that deliver the antibiofilm molecules *Flexible structures and predictable kinetics have aided the nanoparticle penetration *Stability against high temperature, enzymatic or microbial degradations	*Biosafety, cytotoxicity, and hemolytic activity, especially those with positively charged surfaces	[285, 286]
Lipid‐based Nanoparticles	*Could incorporate with other antibiofilm drugs *Could encapsulate hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds in the same structure *Targeting ability *Cytotoxicity reduction of the antimicrobials as compared with their free form	*Low retention time can imply higher doses over time	[287, 288]