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. 2022 Aug 5;16(11):2535–2546. doi: 10.1038/s41396-022-01294-9

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — A Overview of daily fiber and starch intake (kg/d) and rumen pH over three experimental periods; B feed digestibility, dissolved hydrogen (H₂), lactate and volatile fatty acids profile in vivo; C feed degradation, methane (CH₄) production and volatile fatty acids profile in vitro rumen experiment 1; D inspection of morphological changes in rumen papillae; E ratio of emptied rumen to carcass and papillae height; F q-PCR results of genes related to volatile fatty acids absorption and intracellular pH regulation in ruminal epithelium. OM organic matter, NDF neutral detergent fiber, VFA volatile fatty acid, Ace acetate, Pro propionate, But butyrate; others, valerate, isovalerate and isobutyrate; HMGCL 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase; HMGCS-1 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase, isoform 1, HMGCS-2 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase, isoform 2, NHE-1 Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 1, NHE-2 Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 2, NHE-3 Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 3, MCT-1 monocarboxylate transporter, isoform 1. Data with error bars are expressed as mean ± standard error. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, n = 12/group.