Table A1.

Reviewed literature on the impacts of SWM practices in Asia (compiled by authors).

Author	Study Area	Study Aim	Impacts on Humans	Impacts on the Environment	Recommendations/Implications
Akmal & Jamil [36]	Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan	Examines the relationship between residents’ health and dumpsite exposure.	▪Open dumpsites and haphazard waste disposal lead to malaria and dengue fever. ▪Health risk due to water contamination from dumpsites. ▪Respiratory diseases, including asthma, skin diseases, and diarrhea due to proximity to dumpsites.	▪Groundwater contamination from leachate from landfill sites ▪Land pollution due to the emptying of waste in drains, open sewers, roads, streets, and railway tracts.	▪Locating landfill sites in the suburbs and removing illegal dumpsites within the residential areas. ▪Public awareness campaigns on the adverse effects of living around dump sites.
Hong et al. [95]	Pudong, China	Assesses the environmental impacts of five SW treatment options	▪Incinerating plastic wastes produces HCl acid and dioxins, which are detrimental to human health	▪Leachates from landfills and open incineration sites contaminate soil, surface water, and groundwater ▪Global warming due to CO2 and acidification from NOx and SO2	▪Integrate BMT into the SWM system to reduce emissions and maximize recycling
Gunamantha [88]	Kartamantul region, Yogyakarta, Indonesia	Compares five energetic valorization alternative scenarios and existing SW treatment.	▪CH4 and CO2 emissions from landfill sites produce adverse health effects such as skin, eyes, nose, and respiratory diseases.	▪Emissions of CH4 and CO2 gases from landfill sites aggravated global warming challenges.	▪Use the LCA approach to assist in decision-making on the SWM plan
Abba et al. [65]	Johor Bahru, Malaysia	Assesses stakeholder opinion on the existing and future environmental impacts of household solid waste disposal.	▪Lung and eye inflammation problems due to air pollution	▪Emissions of CO2, N2O, and NH3 increase climate change challenges. ▪Leachates contaminate water bodies ▪Depletion of fauna and flora due to landfills.	▪Incineration protects stream ecology, fauna, flora, and air quality, enhances environmental visibility, and optimizes land use.
Fang et al. (2012) [85]	Shanghai, China	Identifies different sources of MSW odor compounds generated by landfill sites.	▪Emissions of NH4 cause harm to the respiratory tract, eyes, nose, lungs, etc.	▪Emissions of NH3 damage species composition, plant leaves, etc.	▪Provide engineered landfills
Menikpura et al. [89]	Nonthaburi municipality, Bangkok, Thailand	Explores recycling activities’ effects on the sustainability of SWM practices.	▪Emission of hazardous gasses from landfill sites such as CH4, NH3, and NOx are associated with human toxicity and ailments.	▪Significant damage to the ecosystem due to acidifying and eutrophying substances emissions.	▪Promote more recycling of MSW.
Mongkolnchaiarunya [103]	Yala Manucipality, Thailand	Investigates the possibilities of integrating alternative SW solutions with local practices.	▪Open burning of waste causes respiratory ailments and odors	▪Air and soil pollution due to waste burning. ▪Negatively affect the aesthetic landscape of the environment.	▪Partnerships between sectors to inculcate new ideas, information, and skills in solid-waste management issues.
De & Debnath [98]	Kolkata, India	Investigates the health effects of solid waste disposal practices.	▪Open dumping has caused associated health risks, including malaria, dengue, and diarrhea.	▪Water and air pollution are due to indiscriminate waste disposal on streets, drains, open spaces, and water bodies.	▪Proper MSW dumping sites to reduce land degradation and human health impacts
Suthar & Sajwan [83]	Dehradun city, India	Proposes a new solid waste disposal site	▪Odor problems among residents living close to the landfill sites or nearby locations.	▪Leachates pollute surface and groundwater.	▪Physical and chemical components are the key factor in site selection
Phillips & Mondal [68]	Varanasi, India	Evaluates the sustainability of solid waste disposal options	▪Visual and odor impacts due to open dumping. ▪Human health hazards due to CH4 and CO2	▪Leachate causes hazards to the environment, surface, and groundwater bodies.	▪Gasification was the most effective and sustainable solid waste disposal option.
Ramachandra et al. [37]	Bangalore, India	Assesses the composition of waste for its management and treatment	▪Indiscriminate disposal of waste has caused visual impacts on the environment. ▪Emissions of CO2 and CH4 cause likely adverse health effects.	▪GHG emissions due to indiscriminate disposal of waste contribute to global warming ▪Water and land pollution.	▪Integrated SWM strategy to handle the organic components through policy interventions and technology.
Pokhrel & Viraraghavan [38]	Kathmandu Valley, Nepal	Evaluates SWM practices in Nepal.	▪Haphazard disposal of solid wastes affects the residents’ lives due to odor and associated health effects.	▪Polluted riverbanks and water resources ▪The tourism industry is severely affected by the open dumping of solid wastes.	▪Composting. ▪Ban indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes
Dangi et al. [93]	Tulsipur, Nepal	Investigates household SWM options.	▪Contaminated water consumption by citizens results in several health effects.	▪Water and soil contamination due to the absence of a leachate treatment facility	▪Recycling and composting.
Islam (2016) [82]	Dhaka, Bangladesh	Develops an effective SWM and recycling process for Dhaka city	▪Emission from open-air dumping practices causes health threats to residents. ▪Nuisance and aesthetic issues due to strong odor.	▪Pollution of water bodies. ▪CO2 and CH4 emissions pollute the environment.	▪Strict rules on haphazard solid waste disposal and public awareness campaigns.
Das et al. [101]	Kathmandu valley, Nepal	Estimates the amount of MSW burnt in five municipalities.	▪Open-air burning causes health-threatening effects, such as respiratory infections, allergic hypersensitivity, and heart diseases.	▪Global warming problem due to CO2 and CH4 emissions	▪Improve waste segregation at the source and waste collection points. ▪Penalty for open burning and indiscriminate waste disposal
Usman et al. [84]	Faisalabad, Pakistan	Investigates the impacts of open dumping on groundwater quality	▪Unpleasant odors, visual impacts, and risks to residents’ health ▪CO2 and CH4 emissions from open-air burning.	▪Soil quality degradation by pollutants ▪Surface and ground water contamination by leachates’ percolation.	▪Effective monitoring and supervision for waste disposal and leachate management.
Nisar et al. (2008) [73]	Bahawalpur City, Pakistan	Explores the sources and impacts of SWM practices	▪Breeding of disease-carrying vectors, including rodents, mosquitoes, etc. ▪Severe infections due to air and water pollutants.	▪Land degradation ▪Decrease in land values ▪Air and water pollution	▪The community’s health and environmental problems are due to poor SWM practices.
Ejaz et al. (2010) [52]	Rawalpindi city, Pakistan	Identifies the causes of illegal dumping of SWM.	▪Unhygienic conditions for residents due to odor, leachates, and associated emissions. ▪Spread of infections due to breeding of diseases-carrying vectors.	▪Blocking of drains and sewer system triggering periodic flooding. ▪Littering of polythene bags causes aesthetic nuisance and death in animals. ▪Air and water pollution	▪Public awareness, community participation ▪Provide resources, equipment, and funding
Batool & Chaudhry [35]	Lahore, Pakistan	Evaluates the effect of MSW management practices on GHG emissions.	▪Odor due to indiscriminate disposal of waste causes a threat to human health. ▪CO2 and CH4 emissions are causing associated health risks.	▪Wastes are disposed of on vacant land, excavations, flood plains, and water bodies. ▪Land degradation and soil deterioration. ▪Air pollution from CO2 and CH4 emissions.	▪Recycling to reduce the purchase of expensive lands for landfills. ▪Bio-gasification.
Hoang & Fogarassy [74]	Hanoi, Vietnam	Explores the most sustainable MSW management options using MCDA.	▪Threats to public health due to GHG emission and water contamination. ▪Pungent odor, which is a detriment to health.	▪Air and water pollution due to GHG emissions and leachate ▪Land and soil deterioration. ▪Visual impacts due to overcrowded landfills.	▪Mechanical–biological treatment (MBT) plants as the sustainable solution for MSW systems.
Ansari [86]	Bahrain	Proposes an integrated and all-inclusive SWM system	▪Public health risks due to leachates and landfill gas generation. ▪Fire hazard. ▪Odor generation.	▪Landscape and soil quality destruction. ▪Dust generation. ▪Groundwater contamination. ▪Noise and air pollution	▪A partnership between government and stakeholders to achieve a sustainable integrated SWM system.
Clarke et al. [53]	Qatar	To collect data about residents’ specific opinions concerning SW strategies.	▪Emissions from landfill sites are associated with organic wastes. ▪Leachates contaminate ground and surface water bodies.	▪Garbage disposal on beaches. ▪Indiscriminate littering of plastic and paper wastes. ▪Unhealthy waste food disposal.	▪Behavioral change among residents to achieve transformational and sustainable SWM.
Ossama et al. [115]	Saudi Arabia	Reviews municipal SWM practices in Saudi Arabia	▪Generating landfill gases such as CH4 causes infection in humans. ▪Leachates cause harm to humans.	▪Water bodies polluted by leachates from landfill sites ▪Air pollution from the disposal sites	▪Recycling, natural resources conservation, and reducing pollution and landfilling.
Brahimi et al. [104]	India	Explores the potential of waste-to-energy in India	▪Infections from contaminated ground and surface water bodies. ▪Producing cancer-forming chemicals such as dioxin and furans due to incineration ▪Respiratory infections from incineration and landfilling. ▪Bacterial infection, hemoglobin deficiency, and allergy due to poor SWM.	▪Water, soil, noise, and air pollution from landfilling and incineration. ▪Global warming from open-air burning and hazardous gases emissions from landfilling and incineration. ▪Odor nuisance.	▪Enact policies to improve and encourage WTE industry and support the investors.