Table 1.
Types of nanoparticle formulations and their pharmacological and pharmaceutics studies, with their biological activity.
| Type of Nanoparticles |
Comp | Size and Shape | Formulation Technique | Results | Target Activity/Disease | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PLGA nanoparticle embedded into gelatin-based hydrogel | AG | 494.00 ± 4.28 nm (acid end group) and 529.30 ± 7.36 nm (ester end group) (Spherical shape) | Single emulsion solvent evaporation method | The intra-articular drug delivery results in a long-standing sustained release injection (≥2 months) and implantation (≈2 months) for osteoarthritis disease’s local treatment. | Osteoarthritis disease | [92] |
| PLGA nanoparticles | AG | 250 nm (spherical with no visual crevices) | Multiple-emulsion solvent evaporation technique | AG’s bioavailability is enhanced through oral (AUC0-t: 5.37 times and 6.38 times higher in plasma and lung than free-AG) or pulmonary (AUC0-t: 3.2 times and 3.6 times higher in plasma and lung than free-AG) administration. The content of serum IgE, cell numbers, broncho-alveolar lavage fluid levels, NF-κβ suppression demonstrates greatly improved results, with sustained release AG NPs compared to free AG. | Asthma | [93] |
| Gold nanoparticles | AG | 543 nm from plasmon response and 14 nm in TEM (crystalline and spherical) | Facile one-pot technique | The formulation exhibits strong anti-leishmanicidal effects, with macrophage uptake completed within 2 h of introduction, resulting in an IC 50 value of 19 ± 1.7 µM for wild life, and 41 ± 6 µM for paromomycin or 55 ± 7.3 µM for sodium stibogluconate resistant strains. | Drug resistant VL strains | [94] |
| Silver Nanoparticles | AP Extract (APE) |
53.2 ± 2 nm (Crystalline and spherical) |
Priosynthes/green synthesis | APE silver nanoparticles exhibited promising antifungal activity in both Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp. (Inhibition diameter: 12 mm and 14 mm) | Antifungal Activity | [95] |
| Novel Self-Nano Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) | AG | 8.4 ± 0.6 nm to 115.0 ± 2.9 nm (globule) |
Shake-flask method, followed by ternary phase diagrams. | AG SNEDDS had a better efficacy in comparison to plain AG, with a 1.26-fold rise in Cmax, 1.2-fold improvement in AUC, and 1.72-fold decline in Tmax in an animal model (New Zealand white rabbits). | NA | [96] |
| Liposomes | AG | 77.91 nm | Injection method | In vivo studies showed rats sprayed using liposome inhalers demonstrated a powerful anti-S. aureus effect of pneumonic instead of AG with 10x higher dose or of penicillin. It reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1) and restricted IκB-α phosphorylation, to modulate the immune response against antibacterial effect and downregulate the inflammatory response. | Bacterial pneumonia/Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity | [83] |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles (nanocrystal) |
AP Extract (APE) |
96 to 115 nm (spherical, oval, hexagonal) | Biosynthesis/green synthesis method | AP green ZnO nanoparticles have excellent potentials vs. AP leaf extract alone in antidiabetic (IC50: 121.42 lg/mL vs. 149.65 lg/mL), anti-inflammatory (IC50: 66.78 lg/mL vs. 75.42 lg/mL) and antioxidant (62%) activity. | Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity |
[97] |
| Regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) nanoparticles | AP Extract (APE) |
200 to 1000 nm (spherical structure) | Green and mild method with additions of ethanol, mPEG-NH2, and freezing RSF-ethanol solution. | For an in vitro drug release profile, 90.9% of APE was released from APE-loaded RSFNPs up to 72 h against APE suspension and APE-saturated solution, which showed a two-fold lower drug release profile. No cytotoxicity was observed and it can attach easily to MDA-MB-231 and Hela cells, demonstrating its anti-proliferative activity. | Lymphatic chemotherapy/anti-proliferative activity. | [98] |
| NiO nanoparticles | AP Extract (APE) | 24 nm (cubic structure) |
Microwave-assisted biogenic | Green NiO nanoparticles were evaluated for photodegradation, which resulted in a 88.13% degradation efficiency. It expressed the the lowest IC50 value in an MCF-7 cell line study compared with other metal oxide nanoparticles. | Breast Cancer/anticancer activity. | [99] |
| Silver nanoparticles | AP Aqueous Extract | 123.1 nm | Biosynthesis method | HeLa cell line were used to test the impact of cytotoxicity, which is known to be dose-dependent, with 7.285 μg/mL as the half maximal inhibitory concentration. A total of 24 male mice were injected intraperitoneally with AgNPs (350 g/kg BW) and plant extract (80 mg/kg BW) for 10 days, following tumor formation with a calculated dose (40 µL). The biochemical and hematological indicators studied were restored to near-normal levels in all of the therapy groups, showing AgNPs’ effectiveness against carcinoma cells. | Antitumor activity. | [100] |
| Silver nanoparticles | AP Methanol Extract | 18–70 nm (spherical) | Biosynthesis method | The anticancer efficacy was investigated against neuroblastoma cells and normal Vero cells, which resulted in IC 50 values of 32 and 60 g/mL, respectively. No cytotoxicity (CC 50 value of 329.29 and 368 µg/mL) was induced by nanoparticles to Vero cell lines. | Anticancer activity. | [101] |
| Nano-phytovesicular system | Semi-purified AG | 395.5 ± 5.80 nm (spherical, unilamellar vesicles with globular shapes) | Liquid dispersion technique with slight modifications | The hyperglycemic condition of rats was significantly protected by the nano-phyto vesicles of semi-purified AP extract, corresponding to 25 mg/kg AG. Compared to free AG (50 mg/kg), the AG vesicles produced superior results in body weight development, oral glucose tolerance test, as well as blood glucose level. Therefore, increased oral absorption, bioavailability, and improved antihyperglycemic action were shown in in vitro and in vivo studies. | Hypoglycaemic activity | [102] |
| Human serum albumin-based nanoparticles (HSA NPs) and poly ethylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles (PECA NPs) | AG | 151.7 to 335.1 nm (spherical) | Thermal and chemical cross-linking method for HSAT AG NPs and HSAC AG NPs and Emulsion polymerization method to yield PECA AG NPs. | An in vitro BBB model based on the hCMEC/D3 cell line was used to examine the potential of free AG and AG-loaded in HSAT and PECA NPs to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). In silico research anticipated that free AG would not permeate the BBB model. HSAT NPs enhanced the AG penetration by two-fold, while retaining cell layer integrity, whereas PECA NPs momentarily damaged the BBB integrity. | Inflammation-related pathologies/neurodegenerative disorders | [103] |
| Niosome | AP Extract (water and ethanol) | 125–226 nm (spherical) | Proniosome-derived niosomal dispersion | Ethanol AP extract niosomal gel had a 100% wound recovery rate while protecting tissue from oxidative stress. Towards the end of 14 days, prominent collagen fibers and the development of hair follicles were detected in fibroblasts cells. | Wound healing/antioxidant activity. | [85] |
| Nanosuspensions | 19-tert-butyldiphenylsilyl-8,17-epoxy AG (3A.1) (AG analogue) | less than 300 nm (spherical) | Single step nanoprecipitation (bottom-up) technique | The anticancer activity of NSC derivatives stabilized 3A.1 nanosuspension against colorectal cancer (HCT116) cells was substantially enhanced regarding in vitro cytotoxicity. | Colorectal cancer/anticancer activity. | [104] |
| Eudragit (R) EPO Based Nanoparticle Suspension | AG | 255.9 nm | Nanoprecipitation and lyophilization technique | Compared to pure AG, there was a substantial increase in drug dissolution, with total drug release within 10 min in NPs suspension and re-dispersed in NPs suspension. However, lyophilization slowed the release of AG. In contrast to AG, the NP suspension and re-dispersed NPs suspension showed better hepatoprotectivity for CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Histopathological research on liver lesions confirmed the findings. | Hepatic lesions/Hepatoprotective activity. | [105] |
| Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) | AG | 262 to 278 nm (Spherical) | Emulsion/evaporation/solidifying technique | In vitro findings using hCMEC/D3 cells, an in vitro BBB model, and a permeation test (PAMPA) showed that AG-SLN increased AG permeability and sustainability compared to free AG. Fluorescent SLN were found in brain parenchyma after intravenous delivery in vivo, indicating their ability to transcend the BBB. | Oxidative stress mediated neurotoxicity, inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration, and cerebral ischemia | [106] |
| Casein Micelle | AP Extract (APE) | - | - | Casein breakdown tends to produce a burst release profile in less than 30 min of simulated gastric fluid digestion (500 of substrate ratio: 1 enzyme optimal (w/w)). In digestion of simulated gastric fluid, the incorporation of APE in casein micelles delays casein breakdown, leading to a sustained release profile of casein degradation in around 4 h of digestion. | Antidiabetic Activity | [107] |
| Chitosan Nanoparticles | AG | 500 nm to 3000 nm (crystalline) | Ionic gelation technique (spray drying) | The amount of AG dissolved from chitosan nanoparticles during in vitro drug release was enhanced by 6.5-fold compared to AG alone, meanwhile the in vivo antimalarial activity was 1.65-times higher in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. | Antimalarial activity | [108] |
| Nanoemulsion-based Hydrogel | AG | 56.5 ± 1.92 nm (droplet) | Ultrasonication Method | An optimum nanoemulsion of 1.35% of triethanolamine, 9% of propylene glycol, and 34.65% of carbopol was incorporated into a hydrogel base (1:1). A pH of 6.50 ± 0.02 and viscosity cP of 2492.33 ± 36.91 showed the optimum results of the AG-nano-emulsion-based hydrogel. | NA | [109] |
| Eudragit S 100 nanoparticles | AP Methanolic Extract | 300–400 nm (smooth and spherical shape) | Solvent displacement method | It was noted to have an encapsulation efficiency > 75%, as well as an in vitro drug release of >55%, after 8 h. | NA | [110] |