Table 1.

Fungal and bacterial pathogen-induced stress in plants and their diseases.

Pathogen	Mode of Inducing Stress and Plant Disease	References
Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi, F. oxysporum var. redolent, F. poae, F. solani, and F. avenaceum; Verticillium dahliae; Verticillium albo-atrum	Fungi colonize the xylem vascular bundle then obstruct water flow and induce water stress in fruits and vegetables, which leads to wilt disease.	[5,8]
Puccinia triticina, P. striiformis Westend f. sp. tritici, P. graminis Pers. f. sp. tritici.	Fungi acquire nutrients from the host via a biotrophic interface and induce a nutrient deficiency in wheat, causing rust disease.	[20]
Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei, Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici, Sphaerotheca fuliginea	Fungi colonize and induce a foliar fungal sink at the infected site and acquire nutrients from the host via an obligate biotrophic interface, producing powdery mildew disease in cereals and grasses.	[9,21]
Ustilago maydis	Fungi induce endoglucanase to degrade cellulose and arabinofuranosidase and xylanase to degrade the hemicellulose of the plant cell wall, causing corn smut disease in corn	[22]
Magnaporthe oryzae	During fungal infection, increased induction of pectate-lyase, endo-xylanase, cellulase, and hemicellulase enzymes lead to degradation of the plant cell wall, causing rice blast disease in rice.	[23]
Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium sporotrichioides	Fungi induce mycotoxins such as fumonisins, T-2 toxin, and trichothecenes, causing kernel, stalk, and ear rot in cereals.	[24]
Fusicoccum amygdali Del	Fungi produce fusicoccin, which induces irreversible stomatal opening due to the osmotic swelling of the guard cells, leading to wilting of leaves in peach and almond.	[25]
Pseudomonas marginalis	Bacteria induce enzymes that degrade the pectin layers of the plant cells, causing bacterial soft-rot disease in tomato.	[26]
Erwinia chrysanthemi	Bacteria induce endo-xylanase activities to degrade plant cellulose, causing stem and root rot in maize.	[27]
Clavibacter michiganense subsp. sepedonicum, Ralstonia solanacearum, Xanthomonas campestris, Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis and Xylella fastidiosa	Bacteria colonize the xylem vascular bundle, thus occluding water flow and inducing water deficit stress in the plant, leading to ring rot, vascular wilt, bacterial spots, bacterial canker and pierce′s diseases in potatoes, tomatoes, pepper, and grapevine, respectively.	[28,29,30]
Pseudomonas syringae, Pv. syringae	Syringomycin E and G and syringopeptin 25A toxin induced by bacteria, which inhibit plant growth, affect H+-ATPase activity, and induce electrolyte leakage in plant tissues, causing bacterial canker in carrot, potato, and tobacco.	[25]