Table 1.
Studies summarizing incidence, management, and outcomes of AKI in Black and White races.
| Study | Design | Clinical Setting |
Population Characteristics | AKI Definition |
AKI Rates/Risks (Black vs. White) | Management | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thakar et al., 2003 [24] | Observational cohort study | Database of the Department of Cardiothoracic Anesthesiology, Cleveland | Open-heart surgery patients (n = 22,589) | 50% reduction or greater decline in GFR relative to baseline or ARF requiring dialysis | 2.94% vs. 1.80% | Dialysis (not specified) | ARF and all-cause postoperative mortality |
| Liangos et al., 2006 [25] | Observational cohort study | National Hospital Discharge Survey database |
Hospitalized adult patients (n = 29,039,599) | ICD-9-CM codes | ARF more common in Black patients (Data not available) | Dialysis (not specified) | Hospital length of stay, dialysis requirement, hospital death |
| Xue et al., 2006 [16] | Observational cohort study | Medicare beneficiaries, 1992 to 2001 | Hospitalized patients (n = 5,403,015) | ICD-9-CM codes | 34.4 vs. 22.3 cases per 1000 discharges | Dialysis (not specified) | ARF, sepsis, ICU stay, other acute organ failure, and death within 90 days after admission |
| Waikar et al., 2007 [26] | Observational cohort study | Nationwide Inpatient Sample | Hospitalized adults (n = 15,820,871) | ICD-9-CM codes | 3.1% vs. 2.4% | HD and CRRT | In-hospital mortality |
| USRDS ADR, 2012 [27] | Observational cohort study | Medicare, MarketScan, and Ingenix i3 populations | Hospitalized adult patients (n = 1,201,064) | ICD-9-CM codes | 44.2 vs. 24.3 per 1000 patient years | PD, continuous HD, intermittent HD, daily HD | Recurrent hospitalization, ESRD, Death |
| USRDS ADR 2018 [23] | Observational cohort study | Medicare, Optum Clinformatics™, Veterans Affairs population | Hospitalized adult patients (n = 854,990) | ICD-9-CM codes and KDIGO | Medicare (34.3% vs. 23.0%), Optum Clinformatics™ (9.4% vs. 7.4%), Veterans Affairs (30.4% vs. 24.1%) | - | Recurrent AKI hospitalization (Optum Clinformatics™), ESRD, and Death |
| Hsu et al., 2013 [5] | Observational cohort study | Nationwide Inpatient Sample | Hospitalized patients with dialysis-requiring AKI (n = 1,095,000) | ICD-9-CM codes | 15.6% vs. 10.2% | Dialysis (not specified) | Dialysis-requiring AKI |
| Grams et al., 2014 [4] | Prospective, community-based cohort study | ARIC study | Individuals aged 45–64 years (n = 10,588) | ICD-9-CM codes | 7.4 vs. 5.8 cases per 1000 person-years | - | Hospitalization, follow-up time on ACEI/ARB, and Death |
| Mathioudakis et al., 2016 [17] | Observational cohort study | National Hospital Discharge Survey database | Hospitalized adults with diabetes (n = 276,138) | ICD-9-CM codes | 6.0% vs. 4.6% | Dialysis (not specified) | AKI, in-hospital mortality, and length of hospital stay |
| Fisher et al., 2020 [28] | Retrospective observational study | New York City Health System | Hospitalized adult patients with or without COVID-19 (n = 9859) | KDIGO | 42.0% vs. 9.6% | CRRT, PIRRT, PD, HD | Incident AKI, composite need for RRT or mortality. |
| Bjornstad et al., 2020 [29] | Secondary analysis study | 2012 Kids’ Inpatient Database | Hospitalized pediatric patients aged 1–20 years (n = 1,699,841) | ICD-9-CM codes | Risks: 13.4 vs. 12.4 | - | AKI |
| Beers et al., 2020 [30] | Retrospective cohort study | National Inpatient Sample | Patients with pregnancy-related hospitalizations (n = 48,316,430) | ICD-9-CM codes | 29% vs. 13% | - | In-hospital mortality, adverse discharge, pregnancy-related complications such as miscarriage, preterm labor, and preeclampsia/eclampsia |
| Hassan et al., 2021 [15] | Observational cohort study | Clinical data repository, UVA Health System | Hospitalized adults with AKI (n = 386,342) | KDIGO | 3.6 vs. 4.2 cases per 10 person-years | Dialysis (not specified) | In-hospital mortality and post-hospitalization mortality |
| Heung et al., 2021 [31] | Observational cohort | Perfusion Measures and Outcomes (PERForm) Registry | Adult cardiac surgical patients (n = 34,520) | Serum creatinine-based criteria | 8% vs. 5% | - | Post-operative AKI |
| Shah et al., 2021 [32] | Retrospective | Jackson Memorial Hospital database | Patients with ICH hemorrhage and CT angiogram (n = 394) | KDIGO | 19% vs. 17% | - | AKI |
| Lunyera et al., 2021 [8] | Observational cohort study | Duke Databank for Cardiovascular Disease | Patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (n = 9422) | KDIGO | 14% vs. 8% | - | AKI incidence, AKI severity, AKI requiring dialysis, and contrast-induced nephropathy |
| Muiru et al., 2022 [22] | Multicenter prospective cohort study | Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study | Participants with CKD hospitalized with AKI (n = 2720) | ≥50% increase from nadir to peak serum creatinine | 6.3 vs. 5.3 per 100 person-years | - | Hospitalized AKI |
AKI, acute kidney injury; ARF, acute renal failure; GFR, glomerular filtration rate, CRRT, continuous renal replacement therapy; PIRRT, prolonged intermittent RRT; PD, peritoneal dialysis; HD, hemodialysis; ICD-9-CM, international classification of diseases, ninth revision, clinical modification; ICU, intensive care unit; USRDS ADR, united states renal data system annual data system; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; ACEI, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; ARIC, atherosclerosis risk in communities; KDIGO, kidney disease: improving global outcomes; UVA, university of Virginia; ICH, intracranial hemorrhage; CT, computer tomography, CRIC, chronic renal insufficiency cohort.