Table 5.
Effect of olive pomace oil (OPO) and sunflower oil (SO) consumption on inflammatory biomarkers *.
| Normocholesterolemic n = 31 |
Hypercholesterolemic n = 35 ** |
p Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OPO | SO | OPO | SO | Oil | N/H | N/H × Oil | |
| CRP (mg/dL) | |||||||
| Initial | 0.23 ± 0.07 | 0.25 ± 0.10 | 0.14 ± 0.03 | 0.34 ± 0.17 | 0.222 | 0.823 | 0.860 |
| Final | 0.17 ± 0.05 | 0.11 ± 0.03 | 0.17 ± 0.04 | 0.16 ± 0.04 | 0.311 | 0.579 | 0.438 |
| Rate of change * | 39.1 ± 3.1 | 32.1 ± 0.3 | 15.1 ± 0.7 | 17.5 ± 1.1 | 0.476 | 0.410 | 0.815 |
| IL-1β (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 0.97 ± 0.06 | 0.95 ± 0.03 | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 0.91 ± 0.03 | 0.785 | 0.097 | 0.691 |
| Final | 0.92 ± 0.03 | 0.91 ± 0.03 | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 1.05 ± 0.15 | 0.311 | 0.980 | 0.335 |
| Rate of change | −2.4 ± 2.8 | −3.2 ± 2.8 | 4.6 ± 2.3 | 0.8 ± 14.1 | 0.449 | 0.202 | 0.259 |
| IL-2 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 16.4 ± 0.7 | 16.6 ± 0.5 | 15.4 ±0.3 | 15.9 ± 0.5 | 0.308 | 0.147 | 0.766 |
| Final | 16.0 ± 0.5 | 15.6 ± 0.5 | 15.3 ± 0.4 | 15.6 ± 0.5 | 0.573 | 0.488 | 0.433 |
| Rate of change | 0.1 ± 2.3 | −5.2 ± 2.3 | −0.4 ± 1.8 | −1.4 ± 2.3 | 0.193 | 0.544 | 0.370 |
| IL-4 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 2.68 ± 0.06 | 2.64 ± 0.06 | 2.57 ± 0.05 | 2.61 ± 0.05 | 0.907 | 0.217 | 0.430 |
| Final | 2.64 ± 0.06 | 2.59 ± 0.07 | 2.55 ± 0.04 | 2.62 ± 0.07 | 0.515 | 0.762 | 0.137 |
| Rate of change | 0.7 ± 2.3 | −3.0 ± 2.3 | 2.5 ± 1.6 | −1.6 ± 2.1 | 0.778 | 0.229 | 0.021 |
| IL-6 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 5.2 ± 0.2 | 5.4 ± 0.3 | 5.1 ± 0.2 | 5.0 ± 0.2 | 0.947 | 0.206 | 0.258 |
| Final | 5.3 ± 0.3 | 5.1 ± 0.3 | 5.0 ± 0.2 | 5.2 ± 0.2 | 0.986 | 0.571 | 0.668 |
| Rate of change | 3.5 ± 4.4 | −2.1 ± 4.4 | −3.0 ± 4.3 | 5.0 ± 3.3 | 0.816 | 0.885 | 0.169 |
| IL-7 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 33 ± 1 | 34 ± 1 | 33 ± 1 | 34 ± 1 | 0.388 | 0.613 | 0.782 |
| Final | 34 ± 1 | 34 ± 1 | 33 ± 1 | 33 ± 1 | 0.692 | 0.610 | 0.856 |
| Rate of change | 2.3 ± 2.5 | −1.2 ± 2.5 | 0.6 ± 1.7 | −1.0 ± 2.3 | 0.252 | 0.777 | 0.641 |
| IL-8 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 22 ± 2 | 24 ± 2 | 20 ± 1 | 21 ± 1 | 0.634 | 0.057 | 0.861 |
| Final | 21 ± 1 | 21 ± 1 | 20 ± 1 | 20 ± 1 | 0.871 | 0.633 | 0.874 |
| Rate of change | −5.6 ± 3.8 | −3.2 ± 3.8 | 3.0 ± 2.5 | −3.0 ± 2.2 | 0.204 | 0.113 | 0.568 |
| IL-10 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 10.9 ± 0.2 | 11.1 ± 0.3 | 10.8 ± 0.3 | 10.7 ± 0.2 | 0.319 | 0.260 | 0.677 |
| Final | 11.0 ± 0.2 | 10.8 ± 0.2 | 10.9 ± 0.3 | 10.6 ± 0.2 | 0.883 | 0.552 | 0.233 |
| Rate of change | 1.9 ± 1.6 | −2.6 ± 1.6 | −0.3 ± 1.1 | 0.9 ± 1.6 | 0.310 | 0.686 | 0.080 |
| IL-12 (p70) (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 12.1 ± 0.3 | 12.4 ± 0.3 | 11.7 ± 0.3 | 11.9 ± 0.2 | 0.287 | 0.091 | 0.838 |
| Final | 12.2 ± 0.3 | 11.9 ± 0.3 | 11.7 ± 0.2 | 12.0 ± 0.3 | 0.957 | 0.565 | 0.253 |
| Rate of change | 1.5 ± 2.5 | −4.1 ± 2.5 | 0.9 ± 1.7 | 1.0 ± 1.7 | 0.200 | 0.293 | 0.182 |
| IL-13 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 3.2 ± 0.2 | 2.8 ± 0.1 | 2.9 ± 0.1 | 0.345 | 0.045 | 0.992 |
| Final | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 2.8 ± 0.1 | 2.9 ± 0.1 | 0.826 | 0.142 | 0.437 |
| Rate of change | 2.8 ± 2.8 | −5.2 ± 2.8 | 1.0 ± 1.9 | −0.7 ± 3.0 | 0.023 | 0.527 | 0.159 |
| IL-17 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 13.9 ± 0.4 | 14.0 ± 0.3 | 13.4 ± 0.3 | 13.5 ± 0.2 | 0.475 | 0.199 | 0.875 |
| Final | 14.0 ± 0.4 | 13.8 ± 0.4 | 13.3 ± 0.2 | 13.5 ± 0.3 | 0.936 | 0.143 | 0.489 |
| Rate of change | 0.8 ± 2.1 | −0.7 ± 2.1 | −0.2 ± 1.6 | 0.3 ± 1.6 | 0.773 | 0.997 | 0.570 |
| G-CSF (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 137 ± 3 | 140 ± 2 | 134 ± 2 | 134 ± 2 | 0.456 | 0.041 | 0.453 |
| Final | 137 ± 2 | 137 ± 3 | 133 ± 2 | 135 ± 2 | 0.875 | 0.150 | 0.547 |
| Rate of change | 0.9 ± 1.7 | −1.7 ± 1.7 | −0.4 ± 1.0 | 0.8 ± 1.2 | 0.618 | 0.711 | 0.185 |
| GM-CSF (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 4.7 ± 0.2 | 4.7 ± 0.2 | 4.7 ± 0.3 | 4.6 ± 0.2 | 0.726 | 0.929 | 0.911 |
| Final | 4.7 ± 0.2 | 4.5 ± 0.2 | 4.5 ± 0.2 | 4.8 ± 0.3 | 0.746 | 0.772 | 0.329 |
| Rate of change | 0.9 ± 2.6 | −2.4 ± 2.6 | −1.6 ± 2.3 | 4.4 ± 3.3 | 0.651 | 0.472 | 0.114 |
| MCP-1 (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 39 ± 3 | 37 ± 4 | 33 ± 2 | 33 ± 2 | 0.909 | 0.088 | 0.949 |
| Final | 35 ± 6 | 34 ± 3 | 31 ± 1 | 32 ± 2 | 0.574 | 0.243 | 0.416 |
| Rate of change | −2.9 ± 3.8 | −6.5 ± 3.8 | −1.7 ± 3.2 | 0.3 ± 3.2 | 0.816 | 0.273 | 0.497 |
| MIP-1β (ng/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 69 ± 6 | 73 ± 5 | 71 ± 8 | 73 ± 8 | 0.572 | 0.790 | 0.793 |
| Final | 67 ± 4 | 66 ± 4 | 71 ± 8 | 71 ± 9 | 0.834 | 0.453 | 0.845 |
| Rate of change | 4.9 ± 3.9 | −8.3 ± 3.9 | −1.3 ± 4.1 | 1.4 ± 6.3 | 0.361 | 0.774 | 0.133 |
| TNF-α (pg/mL) | |||||||
| Initial | 23.1 ± 0.9 | 23.7 ± 0.8 | 23.3 ± 1.4 | 23.9 ± 1.4 | 0.633 | 0.897 | 0.978 |
| Final | 23.0 ± 0.8 | 22.4 ± 0.8 | 23.3 ± 1.5 | 23.4 ± 1.5 | 0.888 | 0.584 | 0.644 |
| Rate of change | 0.5 ± 1.8 | −5.0 ± 1.8 | 0.0 ± 1.4 | −1.5 ± 2.0 | 0.083 | 0.567 | 0.382 |
* Values represent mean ± SEM. The table shows the initial (pre-treatment) and final (post-treatment) mean values. The rate of change was calculated from initial and final values as [(final value-initial value)/initial value] and expressed as percentage. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed model. p values in the first column correspond to the effect of taking the oil (OPO or SO), those of the penultimate column to the effect of the group [normocholesterolemic (N) or hypercholesterolemic (H)], and the last column to the interaction of oil and group. Significance level was set at p < 0.05. CRP: C reactive protein. IL: Interleukin. G-CSF: Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. GM-CSF: Granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IFN-γ: Interferon gamma. MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. MIP-1β: Macrophage inflammatory protein 1 beta. TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha. ** Two hypercholesterolemic volunteers were excluded for statistical analysis due to outliers.