Table 1.

Helminths or helminth-derived products suppress obesity, T2DM, and NAFLD-related diseases.

Class	Helminth species	Helminth or Helminth-derived products	Models	Regulatory effect	Reference
Trematoda	Schistosoma japonicum	infection	C57BL/6 mice	glycolysis-related gene↑, FA oxidation-related gene↑, gluconeogenesis gene↓, FA synthesis genes↓, lipid uptake gene↓	(95)
		SEA-stimulated macrophages	RAW264.7 cells	glycolysis and FA oxidation genes↑, gluconeogenesis gene↓, FA synthesis gene↓, and lipid uptake gene↓	(95)
		Sjp40	HFD C57BL/6 mice	lipid metabolism↓, lipogenesis in liver↓	(14)
	Schistosoma mansoni	infection	HFC C57BL/6 mice HFD C57BL/6 mice	glucose tolerance↑, body mass↓, liver steatosis↓, body weight gain↓, fat mass gain↓, adipocyte size↓, insulin sensitivity↑	(96, 110)
		LNFPIII	HFD C57BL/6 mice	glucose tolerance↑, insulin sensitivity↑, lipogenesis in the liver↓, liver steatosis↓	(15)
		SEA	HFD C57BL/6 mice	glucose tolerance↑, insulin sensitivity↑, lipogenesis in the liver↓, liver steatosis↓	(110)
		LPC	macrophages from C57BL/6 mice	PPARγ expression↑, lipogenic enzyme expression↑, lipid storage in adipose tissue↑, M2 macrophage polarization↑	(115)
		ω1	C57BL/6J mice	Th2 cells, eosinophils, and M2 macrophages in WAT↑, type 2 immunity↑, food intake↓, whole-body metabolic homeostasis↑, inflammation↓	(116)
	Schistosoma haematobium	infection	overweight/obese individuals	serum TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, and TG levels↓, risk of cardiometabolic diseases caused by hyperlipidemia↓	(100)
Cestoda	Taenia pisiformis	infection	HFD New Zealand rabbits	body weight↓, cholesterol level↓, liver and testicular weight↑, submandibular gland weight↓, body fat↑	(97)
	Echinococcus granulosus	ESPs	HFD C57BL/6J mice	intestinal barrier damage↓, ZO-1 expression↑, bacterial endotoxins translocation↓, gut inflammation↓, HFD-induced microbiota dysbiosis↓	(131)
Nematoda	Nippostrongylus brasiliensis	infection	HFD C57BL/6 or RIP2-Opa1KO mice HGI or HFD C57BL/6 mice	weight gain↓, adipose tissue mass↓, hepatic steatosis↓, glucose metabolism↑, fasting blood glucose↓, oral glucose tolerance↓, eosinophil and Th2 immune response↑, altered alpha diversity and microbial richness	(94, 109, 127)
		ESPs	HGI C57BL/6 mice	glucose tolerance↑, body weight gain↓, type 2 immune response↑, affected microbial composition	(130)
	Acanthocheilonema viteae	SMAs of ES-62 or ES-62	HCD C57BL/6J mice	fasting glucose levels↓, ileum villus length↑, liver fibrosis↓, type 2 immune response↑, visceral adipose tissue dysfunction and gonadal adipocyte hypertrophy in male mice↓, gut health↑, normalized the gut microbiota	(98, 132)
	Litomosoides sigmodontis	infection	HFD BALB/c mice	eosinophil and M2 macrophages in EAT↑, glucose homeostasis↑	(107)
		LsAg	HFD BALB/c mice HFD C57BL/6J mice	glucose tolerance↑, inflammatory responses↓, insulin signaling in EAT↑, adiponectin level↑, Th1 and Th17 cells in the adipose tissue↓, insulin resistance↓, improves obesity	(107, 117)
	Heligmosomoides polygyrus	infection	HFD C57BL/6 mice	weight gain↓, insulin sensitivity↑, fat accumulation in the liver↓, obesity-related inflammation↓, Treg frequency and suppressor function in adipose tissue↑	(108)
	Strongyloides stercoralis	infection	individuals	pro-inflammatory cytokines↓, chemokine levels↓	(111)
	Strongyloides venezuelensis	infection	C57BL/6 mice	Lactobacillus spp↑, anti-inflammatory cytokine production↑, M2 macrophage polarization in adipose tissue↑, tight junction protein expression in intestinal cells↑, LPS level in serum↓, glucose metabolism homeostasis↑	(126)

HFD, high-fat diet; HFC, high-fat chow; FA, fatty acid; RIP2-Opa1KO, pancreatic β cell Opa1 deficiency; HGI, High Glycemic Index diet; ESPs, excretory/secretory products; HCD, high calorie diet; SMAs, small molecule analogues; WAT, white adipose tissue; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; ZO-1, zonula occludens-1; ETA, epididymal adipose tissue ↑(increase); ↓(decrease).