Figure 2.

Potential mechanisms underlying the effects of ginger and its biologically active compounds in Parkinson’s disease. Administration of ginger and its extracts have reported neuroprotective effect in preclinical models of PD mainly by exerting modulatory effects on neuroinflammation (suppress microglial activation and expression of inflammatory mediators), oxidative stress (upregulates SOD and downregulates CAT activity), mitochondrial dysfunction (reduces mitochondrial impairment and upregulates AMPK/PGC1α pathway), dopaminergic neuronal loss, intestinal permeability (increases intestinal integrity, survival of dopaminergic neurons of enteric plexus, ZO-1, and occludin expression and decreases TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS expression), and synaptic transmission (upregulates VMAT2 expression and ERK activation).