Table 3.

Typologies of WCOs.

Authors	Year	Sample the typology is based on	Typology
Weisburd, David, Elin Waring, and Ellen Chayet (Weisburd et al., 2001)	2001	Subset of the Yale Studies sample; 968 WCC cases processed in seven federal judicial districts during 1976–1978.	The authors identified three groups; the first and largest group comprised low-frequency offenders (subdivided into ‘crisis responders’ who engage in crime in response to a perceived crisis, and ‘opportunity takers’ who respond to unusual sets of opportunities for WCC). The second was a group of intermittent offenders, ‘opportunity seekers’, who live stable lives with long spells of nonoffending and seek out opportunities to commit crime, and the third group was persistent offenders or ‘stereotypical criminals’.
Kapardis, Andreas, and Maria Krambia-Kapardis (M. K. Kapardis, 1999; A. Kapardis & Krambia-Kapardis, 2004)	2004	50 major fraud cases investigated and prosecuted by the Major Fraud Group (MFG) of the Victoria police.	12-type taxonomy of serious fraud offenders, based on offending pattern and motivation: (1) predator/career fraud offender (16%); (2) opportunist first offender in professional occupation (24%); (3) fraud under an assumed professional identity (2%); (4) isolated fraud as response to unshareable financial pressure on the family (4%); (5) serial fraud as response to unshareable financial pressure on the family (10%); (6) fraud as personal justice (2%); (7) isolated fraud as response to unshareable financial pressure on oneself (4%); (8) serial fraud to solve a financial problem of a personal nature (8%); (9) serial fraud due to a vice (6%); (10) isolated fraud to restore social identity (2%); (11) serial fraud by an unscrupulous deceiver (14%); and (12) serial fraud to assist loved ones with a financial problem (8%).
Bucy, Pamela, Elizabeth Formby, Marc Raspanti, and Kathryn Rooney (Bucy et al., 2008)	2008	Semi-structured interviews with 45 WCC ‘experts’, including federal prosecutors, whistleblowers’ counsel and private defence lawyers specialising in WCC.	Most experts agreed that WCOs can be divided into ‘leaders’ (‘Type A’ personalities; intelligent, arrogant, cunning, prone to risk-taking, greedy, narcissistic, determined and charismatic), and ‘followers’ (less confident and aggressive, gullible, passive and naïve, and much more susceptible to deterrence). Some suggested additional categories such as those who retaliate by becoming whistleblowers or who are genuinely unaware of violating the law.
Van Onna, Joost H. R., Victor R. Van Der Geest, Wim Huisman, and Adriaan JM Denkers (Van Onna et al., 2014)	2014	644 prosecuted white-collar offenders in the Netherlands	The authors identified four trajectories of WCOs from their sample: 1. The ‘stereotypical’ white-collar offenders (38.9%) who show no criminal offending in adolescence and early adulthood, start offending in their mid-30s and peak at age 50; 2. ‘adult onset’ (39.3%) whose offending starts in early adulthood and steadily increases until it peaks at the age of 40; 3. ‘adult persisters’ (17.8%) who start offending in adolescence and continue to increase offending until they peak at age 40; and 4. ‘stereotypical criminals’ (4%) who start their criminal careers in adolescence at a high rate, peak at age 31 and then sharply decline.

Note: WCC = white-collar crime; WCO = white-collar offender.