Table 1.

Ethnomedicinal uses of Indian spices used for cancer treatment.

S. No.	Botanical Name	Family	Common Name	Plant part used	Prominent Ethnomedicinal use	Ref. (s)
1.	Piper nigrum L.	Piperaceae	Black pepper	Fruit	•Gastric problems and diarrohea •Indigestion •Inflammation •Cold and fever •Worms and piles •Antihypertensive •Anti-asthmatic •Immunomodulatory •Anti-ulcer and analgesic	de Souza Grinevicius et al. (2016); Kunnumakkara et al. (2018); Perez-Ortiz et al. (2020)
2.	Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry	Myrtaceae	Cloves	Flower buds and essential oil	•Painkiller •Dental care •Oxidative stress and antiseptic •Prevent microbial infections •Vomiting and nausea •Flatulence •Liver, bowel and stomach disorders •Act as nerve stimulant •Microbial and protozoan infections	Sachan et al. (2018); Kello et al. (2020)
3.	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zingiberaceae	Ginger	Rhizome	•Improve digestion and good for spleen and sore throats •Common cold and flu •Migraine pain and depression •Atherosclerosis and high cholesterol •Rheumatoid arthritis and ulcers •Painful menstrual periods •Cardiovascular disorders •Abdominal cramps •Respiratory disorders •Prevent inflammation •Antinausea remedy	Gottardi et al. (2016); Mansingh et al. (2020); Perez-Ortiz et al. (2020)
4.	Cinnamomum verum J. Presl	Lauraceae	Cinnamon	Bark	•Improve digestion •Delays stomach emptying •Hepatoprotective •Good for spleen and sore throats •Pain •Antipyretic and antiseptic •Inflammation •Gastrointestinal disorders •Antimicrobial and antiviral properties	Gottardi et al. (2016); Srinivasan (2017b); Singh et al. (2021a)
5.	Curcuma caesia Roxb.	Zingiberaceae	Black turmeric	Rhizome	•Cure injuries •Vomiting, toothache •Diarrhea and dysentery •Tumors and piles •Respiratory disorders and inflammation •Hemorrhoids •Menstrual problems, aphrodisiac •Different kind of discharges •Antihelminthic •Muscle relaxant and leprosy	Mukunthan et al. (2017)
6.	Curcuma longa L.	Zingiberaceae	Turmeric	Rhizome	•Ceremonial purposes •Cough, cold and injuries •Liver disorders •Rheumatism and sinusitis •Stimulant and carminative •Sprains and swelling •Diuretic and laxative agent •Relief body pain •Prevention of liver disorders, diarrhea, stress and depression •Act as coloring agent	Perez-Ortiz et al. (2020)
7.	Myristica fragrans Houtt.	Myristicaceae	Nutmeg/Jaiphal	Seeds	•Improve digestion •Good for spleen and sore throats •Anti-allergic and analgesic •Insulin resistance •Prevent inflammation •Liver tonic, uterine tonic and cardiotonic •Sedative, aphrodiasic and hypolipidemic	Gottardi et al. (2016)
8.	Origanum majorana L.	Lamiaceae	Marjoram	Leaves	•Chest pain •Wounds •Cold & cough •Sore throat •Rheumatic pain •Neurodisorders •Gastric issues •Heart diseases •Dermatological disorders •Helps soothe stomach muscles	Khaleel et al., 2016
9.	Capsicum annuum L.	Solanaceae	Chili pepper	Fruit	•Asthma •Gastrointestinal problems •Pain, toothache and wounds •Ulcer •Headaches •Night blindness •Hypersensitivity •Arthritis and rheumatism •Can stop heart attack	Chamikara et al. (2016)
10.	Nigella sativa L.	Ranunculaceae	Black seed	Seeds	•Arthritis and epilepsies •Asthma and ulcers •Hypertension •Inflammation, wounds and malaria •Analgesic •Gastroprotective •Hepatoprotective •Renoprotective •Used as nutritional supplement	Majeed et al. (2021)
11.	Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton	Zingiberaceae	Small cardamom	Fruits	•Asthma and bronchitis •Cold and sore throat •Oral ailments, bad breath, vomiting and indigestion •Cataracts, nausea, diarrhea, constipation and stomach ache •Cardiac, digestive, bladder and kidney problems •Pulmonary disorders •Effective against snake and scorpion venom •Eyelid's irritations	Ashokkumar et al. (2020)
12.	Apium graveolens L.	Apiaceae	Celery	Leaves	•Antihypertensive •Hypolipidemic •Empower brain and nerve •Colic pain and flatulence •Treat suppressed testicular functionality •Carminative	Perez-Ortiz et al. (2020)
13.	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Apiaceae	Fennel	Seeds and fruits	•Digestive, reproductive, and respiratory disorders •Microbial infections •Can reduce bad breath and body odor •Glaucoma •Galactagogue •Improve eyesight •Flatulence of infants •Carminative and diuretic	Farid et al. (2020)
14.	Cuminum cyminum L.	Apiaceae	Cumin	Seeds and fruits	•Carminative and hypertension •Gastro-protective •Antispasmodic •Hypertension, hypoglycemic and digestive stimulant •Anti-osteoporotic •Antioxidant •Dyspepsia and allergic rhinitis •Respiratory and metabolic disorders	Goodarzi et al. (2020); Perez-Ortiz et al. (2020); Singh et al. (2021b)
15.	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	Fabaceae	Fenugreek	Seeds and leaves	•Reduce sugar content •Socking seeds reported with increased antidiabetic potential •Stop liver disorders •Enhance kidney functions •Heart diseases •Prevent obesity •Hypocholesterolemic •Improve immune system •Prevent inflammation •Helps flush out harmful toxins	Mohamadi et al. (2018); Sanlier and Gencer (2020); Singh et al. (2022)
16.	Brassica juncea L. Czern	Brassicaceae	Mustard	Seeds	•Cardio protective action •Used as emetic and diuretic agent •Prevent arthritis and rheumatism •Stop inflammation •Hyperglycemia, thyroids, hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia	Kunnumakkara et al. (2018); Sanlier and Gencer (2020)
17.	Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.	Rutaceae	Curry leaf	Leaf	•Prevent inflammation •Relief kidney pain •Stop vomiting •Used as antidiabetic agent •Increase glucose metabolism •Blood purifier •Prevent stomachache •Wound healing •Renal pain •Cure piles and leucoderma	Sanlier and Gencer (2020)
18.	Coriandrum sativum L.	Apiaceae	Coriander	Whole plant	•Digestive and urinary disorders •Respiratory problems •Anti-inflammatory •Anti-diabetic •Insomnia, anxiety and convulsion •Cholesterol lowering effects •Carminative •Antiulcer	Sari et al. (2021)
19.	Pimpinella anisum L.	Apiaceae	Aniseed	Seeds and fruits	•Gastro-protective •Analgesic in migraine •Hair and skin benefits •Hormonal imbalance in females •Anti-depressant •Disinfectant •Diuretic and carminative •Treatment of epilepsy, nightmare, melancholy and seizures	Sun et al. (2019)
20.	Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague	Apiaceae	Ajwain	Seeds and fruits	•Indigestion and dyspepsia •To cure asthma and colic pain •Skin infections •Common cold and migraine •Vomiting and mouth disorders •Hiccups and carminative •kidney and spleen diseases •Improves the cardiac health •Atonic dyspepsia •Astha and bronchial troubles •Abdominal pain, piles, amenorrhea and aphrodisiac	Chahal et al. (2017a)
21.	Carum carvi L.	Apiaceae	Caraway	Fruits	•Anti-obesity •Anti-anxiety and analgesic •Anti-inflammatory •Hypothyroidism •Antispasmodic, carminative and immunomodulatory •Bowel diseases •Appetite-suppressing activity •Cure lower blood pressure •Antitubercular activity •Anticolitis activity	Miraj and Kiani (2016)
22.	Anethum graveolens L.	Apiaceae	Dill	Seeds	•Bladder inflammation •Liver disorders •Insomnia, brain tonic and Cardio-protective •Hypolipidemic •Decrease blood cholesterol •Galactogogue and vomiting •Anticonvulsant and anticramp •Antispasmodic and anti-emetic agent	Chahal et al. (2017b)
23.	Allium sativum L.	Alliaceae	Garlic	Bulb	•Performance enhancing •Snake and insect bites •Chronic cough •Antibiotic for infectious diseases and antidiabetic •Hypertension •Hypercholesterolemia •Arteriosclerosis •Cardio-protective	Gudalwar et al. (2021)
24.	Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy	Clusiaceae	Kokam	Fruit rind	•Anti-obesity and antidiabetic •Gastric problems •Anti-inflammatory •Dermatitis and wound healing •Rheumatic pain and diarrhea •Antihelmintic and skin ulcers •Cardioprotective •Skin elasticity and moisturiser •Dyspepsia and hyperplasia	Chate et al. (2019)
25.	Mentha piperita L.	Lamiaceae	Mint	Leaf	•Fever and cold •Digestive disorders •Antifungal and antiviral •Oral mucosa and irritation •Throat inflammation •Digestive disorders •Larvicidal and antidiabetic •Radio-protective effect •Toothpaste preparation	Mahendran and Rahman, 2020
26.	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss	Apiaceae	Parsley	Seeds and leaf	•Kidney stones, amenorrhea, dieresis and blurred vision •Carminative and halitosis •Gastrotonic and astringent •Inflammation and dermatitis •Antiseptic, antimicrobial and antispasmodic •Sedative agent	Agyare et al. (2017)
27.	Punica granatum L.	Punicaceae	Pomegranate	Seeds	•Peptic ulcers and dieresis •Atherosclerosis •Hyperlipidemia, chest pain, hypertension and diabetes •Cerebrovascular disease •Hunger headaches •Oral aphthae in behcet disease •Halitosis and bile disorders •Gingival bleeding •Jaundice and diarrhea	Ge et al. (2021)
28.	Crocus sativus L.	Iridaceae	Saffron	Dried stigmas	•Depression, menstruation and painful urination •Weapon of seduction •Anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, diuretic and sedative •Asthma, cough, arthritis, •Dysmenorrhea, plague, chest pain, lung, liver and kidney function	Cardone et al. (2020)
29.	Vanilla planifolia Jacks. Ex Andrews	Orchidaceae	Vanilla	Pod	•Relieve fever, gastric issues, overweight, ulcers, dental caries, cough, hysteria, dyspepsia and dysmenorrhea •Aphrodisiac properties •Aromatherapy, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties •Physiological and emotional health, menstruation regulation and promote arousal	Ahmad et al. (2020)
30.	Illicium verum Hook.f.	Schisandraceae	Star anise	Fruit	•Stomachaches and vomiting •Rheumatic and colic pain •Skin inflammation •Dyspepsia and insomnia •Facial paralysis •Flatulence •Asthma and bronchitis •Antiseptic, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity	Rocha and Tietbohl (2016)
31.	Acorus calamus L.	Araceae	Sweet flag	Rhizome	•Hair loss •Arthritis and neuralgia •Sinusitis and eczema •Dyspepsia and diarrhea •Kidney and liver problems •Asthma, fever and bronchitis	Khwairakpam et al. (2018)
32.	Alpinia galangal (L.) Willd.	Zingiberaceae	Greater galanga	Rhizome	•Kidney and liver troubles •Stomach and back pain •Rheumatism and dyspepsia •Enhance the appetite •Asthma, bronchitis, fever, diabetes and heart diseases •Cardiotonic lesions •Diuretic and irritations	Khairullah et al. (2020)
33.	Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.	Brassicaceae	Horse Radish	Root	•Urinary tract infections •Asthma and bronchitis •Lung and heart problems •Treat wound, fever and pain •Headaches and hypertension •Nasal and sinus dysfunctions •Antiseptic and diaphroretic •Toothache and ulcers •Colic, scurvy and venereal diseases •Back pain and rheumatism	Yasmeen et al. (2020)
34.	Capparis spinosa L.	Capparidaceae	Caper	Flower buds	•Liver and kidney disorders •Paralysis, diabetes and mental disorders •Splenomegaly •Tubercular glands •Rheumatoid arthritis and gout •Hemorrhoids and ulcers •Toothache and skin diseases •Convulsions •Menstruation	Zhang and Ma (2018)
35.	Ferula asafoetida H. Karst.	Apiaceae	Asafoetida	Resins	•Muscle relaxant •Memory enhancer •Digestive disorders •Hypotensive and anthelmintic •Hepatoprotective •Antispasmodic •Treatment of unwanted abortion, unusual pain, sterility, leucorrhea, excessive menstruation, loose stools, flatulence	Upadhyay (2017)
36.	Hyssopus officinalis L.	Lamiaceae	Hyssop	Leaf	•Cough suppressant •Gastrointestinal troubles •Epilepsy •Microbial infections •Ulcers and spasm •Antispasmodic •Expectorant	Tahir et al. (2018)
37.	Juniperus communis L.	Cupressaceae	Juniper berry	Berry	•Antiseptic and antidiabetic •Diuretic •Gastrointestinal troubles •Rheumatic arthritis •Hypoglycemic •Hypolipidemic •Anti-inflammatory	Raina et al. (2019)
38.	Laurus nobilis L.	Lauraceae	Bay leaf	Leaf	•Rheumatism and dermatitis •Epigastring blotting •Improper digestion •Flatulence, eructation and analgesic •Antidote in snake bite •Stomachache and migraine	Elkiran et al. (2018)
39.	Ocimum basilicum L.	Lamiaceae	Basil	Leaf	•Haemostyptic in childbirth •Mentrual irregularties •Asthma and bronchitis •Microbial infections •Earache, fever, flu, cold, cough and malaria •Arthritis and anorexia •Diarrhea and influenza	Shahrajabian et al. (2020)
40.	Papaver somniferum L.	Papaveraceae	Poppy seeds	Seeds	•Diarrhea •Dysentery •Cough and asthma •Used to remove dandruff •Insomnia •Analgesic, narcotic, sedative, stimulant and nutritive •Biliary colic •Headache	Raut and Ghotankar (2019)
41.	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Lamiaceae	Rosemary	Leaf	•Reliving muscle pain •Boost up the memory •Immunity enhancer •Promote the hair growth •Mild analgesic, diuretic •Carminative and expectorant •Treat wounds, rashes, headaches, dyspepsia, renal colic and circulation issues	Kompelly et al. (2019)
42.	Salvia officinalis L.	Lamiaceae	Sage	Leaf	•Allergic swelling •Arthritis and rheumatism •Diarrhea, cold, cough, snake bite, sclerosis, respiratory, metabolic and mental sickness, heartburn, acidity •Excessive sweating, mouth and throat inflammation •Endocrine disorders and high blood pressure •Hypotensive, sedative and stimulant	Sharma et al. (2019)
43.	Thymus vulgaris L.	Lamiaceae	Thyme	Leaf	•Whooping cough •Asthma and bronchitis •Prevent hardness of arteries •Urinary tract infections •Treat toothache •Enhance appetite by treating stomach and intestine infection •Dyspepsia and insomnia •Analgesic and antipyretic •Regulates the blood flow	Dauqan, and Abdullah (2017)
44.	Origanum vulgare L.	Lamiaceae	Oregano	Leaf	•Stomachic troubles •Carminative •Menstrual related disorders •Expectorant •Relive from cough •Flatulence, hepatoprotective •Treat cramps •Emmenagogue	Oniga et al. (2018)
45.	Artemisia dracunculus L.	Asteraceae	Tarragon	Leaf	•Digestive disorders •Gingivitis and insomnia •Anaesthetic for toothache •Used to treat irritation, allergies, rashes, fever, intestinal cramps & worms •Gastritis, wound, cuts, ulcers and dyspepsia •Dermatitis and dysentery •Anti-epileptic •Immunostimulant	Ekiert et al. (2021)
46.	Tamarindus indica L.	Caesalpiniaceae	Tamarind	Fruit	•Wound healing •Snake bite and analgesic •Abdominal pain •Cold, fever and inflammation •Diarrhea and hypolipidemic •Helminthes infection •Laxative effects	Menezes et al. (2016)