Table 3.
Meta-analysis results for the effect of sleep loss on exercise tasks performed in the AM or PM
| Exercise category | Outcomes, n | Exercise performance percentage change | Heterogeneity | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (95% CI) | p value | I2 value | p value | ||
| All categories | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 115 | − 5.42 (− 9.66 to − 1.17) | 0.013 | 93.5 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 106 | − 8.31 (− 13.2 to − 3.37) | 0.001 | 98.9 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 59 | − 3.48 (− 5.89 to − 1.08) | 0.005 | 94.2 | < 0.001 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 35 | − 6.85 (− 11.3 to − 2.39) | 0.004 | 97.5 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 56 | − 5.96 (− 11.5 to − 0.43) | 0.035 | 90.7 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 71 | − 9.50 (− 14.9 to − 4.12) | 0.001 | 99.0 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 27 | − 1.55 (− 4.66 to 1.56) | 0.315 | 55.1 | 0.437 |
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 35 | − 6.23 (− 13.9 to 1.44) | 0.108 | 94.7 | < 0.001 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 23 | − 2.48 (− 4.36 to − 0.60) | 0.012 | 46.1 | 0.048 |
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 34 | − 9.67 (− 13.1 to − 6.24) | < 0.001 | 99.1 | < 0.001 |
| Anaerobic power | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 27 | − 4.58 (− 9.14 to − 0.24) | 0.049 | 97.0 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 30 | − 7.37 (− 10.3 to − 4.40) | < 0.001 | 97.8 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 14 | − 6.38 (− 14.5 to 1.73) | 0.113 | 98.5 | < 0.001 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 11 | − 5.49 (− 7.93 to − 3.04) | < 0.001 | 93.5 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 13 | − 2.77 (− 5.77 to 0.23) | 0.067 | 72.3 | 0.010 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 19 | − 8.35 (− 13.1 to − 3.56) | 0.002 | 96.0 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 5 | 0.25 (− 2.55 to 3.05) | 0.817 | < 0.01 | 0.988 |
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 6 | − 1.10 (− 3.42 to 1.23) | 0.280 | 0.05 | 0.391 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 8 | − 3.46 (− 7.22 to 0.31) | 0.067 | 78.1 | 0.002 |
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 13 | − 10.1 (− 14.9 to − 5.13) | 0.001 | 96.3 | < 0.001 |
| Speed/power endurance | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 14 | 0.11 (− 0.94 to 1.16) | 0.823 | < 0.001 | 0.721 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 15 | − 6.78 (− 10.8 to − 2.80) | 0.003 | 98.5 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 5a | 0.90 (− 0.89 to 2.69) | 0.323 | 14.0 | 0.203 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 5a | − 7.11 (− 14.4 to 0.20) | 0.057 | 93.9 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 9 | − 0.36 (− 1.84 to 1.12) | 0.588 | < 0.001 | 0.964 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 10 | − 5.58 (− 10.4 to − 0.76) | 0.028 | 98.8 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 4a | 0.62 (− 1.55 to 2.79) | 0.575 | 0.00 | 0.902 |
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 3a | 0.43 (− 3.51 to 4.37) | 0.832 | 68.3 | 0.056 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 5a | − 0.86 (− 2.40 to 0.68) | 0.275 | 0.00 | 0.954 |
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 7a | − 7.17 (− 10.7 to − 3.66) | < 0.001 | 98.5 | < 0.001 |
| HIIE | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 11 | − 1.51 (− 10.4 to 7.42) | 0.714 | 97.7 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 16 | − 8.34 (− 12.2 to − 4.47) | 0.001 | 98.5 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 5a | − 2.06 (− 14.1 to 10.0) | 0.737 | 99.3 | < 0.001 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 4a | − 4.13 (− 6.50 to − 1.76) | < 0.001 | 81.2 | 0.013 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 6 | − 3.39 (− 13.3 to 6.55) | 0.421 | 66.5 | 0.074 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 12 | − 10.2 (− 15.4 to − 4.97) | 0.001 | 99.0 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 5 | − 1.10 (− 10.7 to 8.53) | 0.767 | 57.2 | 0.176 |
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 3a | − 4.79 (− 13.6 to 3.98) | 0.284 | 83.6 | < 0.001 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 1 | ||||
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 9a | − 11.5 (− 16.7 to − 6.24) | < 0.001 | 99.4 | < 0.001 |
| Strength | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 39 | − 1.78 (− 3.22 to − 0.33) | 0.017 | 17.6 | 0.570 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 26 | − 4.58 (− 7.59 to − 1.58) | 0.004 | 79.5 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 21 | − 2.43 (− 4.47 to − 0.38) | 0.022 | 31.8 | 0.115 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 8 | − 3.79 (− 7.27 to − 0.32) | 0.037 | 71.5 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 18 | − 0.43 (− 2.41 to 1.54) | 0.650 | < 0.001 | 0.999 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 18 | − 5.20 (− 11.0 to 0.59) | 0.075 | 82.3 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 12 | − 0.55 (− 3.21 to 2.11) | 0.659 | < 0.001 | 0.985 |
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 14 | − 1.51 (− 4.41 to 1.39) | 0.281 | 27.1 | 0.631 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 6 | − 0.26 (− 4.06 to 3.54) | 0.867 | < 0.001 | 0.989 |
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 4 | − 10.5 (− 20.6 to − 0.39) | 0.046 | 84.0 | < 0.001 |
| Endurance | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 12 | − 6.50 (− 11.1 to − 1.86) | 0.010 | 88.6 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 9 | − 3.56 (− 4.67 to − 2.45) | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.976 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 9a | − 7.83 (− 12.9 to − 2.72) | 0.003 | 88.5 | < 0.001 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 4a | − 3.45 (− 4.48 to − 2.42) | < 0.001 | 0.00 | 0.905 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 3a | − 2.67 (− 4.62 to − 0.73) | 0.007 | 0.00 | 0.794 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 5 | − 4.11 (− 7.40 to − 0.82) | 0.026 | < 0.001 | 0.855 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 0 | ||||
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 2a | − 5.28 (− 9.17 to − 1.39) | 0.008 | 0.00 | 0.798 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 2a | − 2.92 (− 6.83 to 0.98) | 0.143 | 0.00 | 0.507 |
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 0 | ||||
| Strength-endurance | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 8 | − 11.2 (− 23.3 to 0.85) | 0.064 | 87.0 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 1 | ||||
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 5 | − 7.06 (-22.9 to 8.82) | 0.285 | 60.5 | 0.172 |
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 1 | ||||
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 3 | − 18.3 (− 35.6 to − 0.96) | 0.045 | 88.3 | 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 0 | ||||
| Skill | |||||
| AM vs. PM | |||||
| Overall (exercise AM) | 4 | − 14.2 (− 26.7 to − 1.68) | 0.037 | 87.0 | < 0.001 |
| Overall (exercise PM) | 9 | − 22.9 (− 29.7 to − 16.0) | < 0.001 | 93.8 | < 0.001 |
| Sleep-loss condition | |||||
| Deprivation (exercise AM) | 0 | ||||
| Deprivation (exercise PM) | 2a | − 20.9 (− 23.6 to − 18.2) | < 0.001 | 0.00 | 0.342 |
| Restriction (exercise AM) | 4 | − 14.2 (− 26.7 to − 1.67) | 0.037 | 87.0 | < 0.001 |
| Restriction (exercise PM) | 7 | − 23.7 (− 34.0 to − 13.4) | 0.001 | 95.5 | < 0.001 |
| Early restriction (exercise AM) | 1 | ||||
| Early restriction (exercise PM) | 7 | − 23.7 (− 34.0 to − 13.4) | 0.001 | 95.5 | < 0.001 |
| Late restriction (exercise AM) | 1 | ||||
| Late restriction (exercise PM) | 0 | ||||
A negative effect estimate indicates a decrease in performance under the intervention condition (‘sleep loss’)
Deprivation: participants did not sleep for an extended period of time (i.e., whole night); restriction: total sleep time ≤ 6 h in any 24 h period – this category is a combination of early restriction, late restriction, fragmented sleep and sleep restriction protocols not specified; early restriction: participants delayed sleep (i.e., went to sleep at a later time); late restriction; participants awakened earlier than normal
HIIE high-intensity interval exercise, AM ante meridiem, PM post meridiem, CI confidence interval
aAll outcomes were from independent studies and the meta-analysis was run without dependency levels (i.e., simple meta-analysis)