Table 2.

Conductive fiber and fabrics applied as strain/stress sensors.

sensor type		substrates	conductive components	conductivity	sensitivity	range	response and recovery time (ms)
resistive sensor	fiber/yarn-shaped strain sensor	PU multifilament [186]	EGaIn	103 S cm−1	GF = 1.5	0–500%; 0.1–2 Hz	220; 280
		EVA fiber [205]	CNT	∼0.026 S cm−1	GF = 3.25	0–88%	312; 327
					GF = 33.29	88–190%	N/A
		TPE fiber [204]	CNT	93.145 S cm−1	GF = 21.3	0–150%	16; N/A
					GF = 34.22	200–1135%	N/A
		PU fiber [206]	AgNW/MXene	∼266 Ω cm−1	GF > 100	0–100%	344; 344
		wet spun recycled cellulose fiber [37]	PANi	17.3 mS cm−1	GF = 23.8	2.5–5%	N/A
		microfluidic spun natural rubber fiber [51]	CNT/PEDOT:PSS	19.1 kΩ cm−1	GF = 3.66–4.4	0–1275%	63; N/A
		Spandex yarn [207]	Ti3C2Tx	105 kΩ cm−1	GF = 604.0	0.11–36.6%	N/A
					GF = 1.2 × 104	36.6–55.6%
					GF = 5.7 × 104	55.6–61.2%
	fiber/yarn-shaped pressure sensor	twisted nylon yarn [208]	CuNPs	1200 Ω cm−1	0.57 kPa−1	0.01–200 kPa	2; 2
		wet-spun PU fiber [36]	CNT/Ti3C2Tx/AuNPs	47.72 S cm−1	0.94 kPa−1	0–20 kPa	39; N/A
	fabric-shaped strain sensor	nylon/spandex weft-knitted fabric [209]	carbon black nanoparticles	34.6 kΩ	GF = 62.2	0–30%	40; 270
		polyester yarns and rubber bands [210]	PPy	N/A	GF = 3.8	0–200%	N/A
					GF = 5.9	0–125%
					GF = 38.9	0–65%
		microfluidic spun PAN fiber membrane [46]	GO/carbon fiber	N/A	GF = 49.8	0–45%	300; 300
					GF = 830.7	45–50%	N/A
		weft-knitted cotton fabric [211]	graphene nanoplatelets/carbon black	∼1.95 kΩ	GF = 1.67	0–120%	N/A
					GF = 6.05	120–150%	N/A
	fabric-shaped pressure sensor	nonwoven cotton fabric [212]	CNT/Ti3C2Tx	6.6 ± 1.5Ω/□	0.245 kPa−1	0.128–1.9 kPa	N/A
					0.060 kPa−1	1.9–12.9 kPa
		cotton fabric [213]	Ti3C2Tx	134.2 Ω	5.30 kPa−1	0–1.30 kPa	N/A
					2.27 kPa−1	1.30–10.25 kPa
					0.57 kPa−1	10.25–40.73 kPa
					0.08 kPa−1	40.73–160 kPa	50; 20
		cotton fabric [214]	Ti3C2Tx	N/A	3.844 kPa−1	0–29 kPa	N/A
					12.095 kPa−1	29–40 kPa	26; N/A
					2.27 kPa−1	1.30–10.25 kPa	N/A
					0.57 kPa−1	10.25–40.73 kPa
					0.08 kPa−1	40.73–160 kPa	50; 20
capacitive sensor		melt-spun Hytrel fiber [215]	carbon black	N/A	GF = 0.7	0–30%	N/A
		SEBS fiber [98]	CNT	26.1 Ω cm−1	GF = 0.91	0–950%	180; N/A
		PU multifilament [216]	AgNPs	N/A	N/A	0–15%	N/A
					GF = 12	15–27.5%
					N/A	27.5–50%
		cellulose yarns [217]	Ti3C2Tx	440 S cm−1	GF = 6.02	2.8–19.7%	N/A
		wet spun TPU fiber [218]	CNT	N/A	GF = 2.3 × 106	0–100%	170; 170
			AgNPs		N/A	100–250%	N/A
		nylon/spandex weft-knitted fabric [209]	carbon black nanoparticles	N/A	GF = 1.55	0–15%	N/A