Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants
| LCD | TRE | Both | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male/Female (total) | 30/25 (55) | 35/20 (55) | 37/15 (52) | 0.204 |
| Age (years) | 41.3 ± 1.4 | 43.0 ± 1.4 | 39.0 ± 1.2 | 0.106 |
| Meal-eating window (hours) | 10.6 ± 0.3 | 10.4 ± 0.3 | 10.7 ± 0.2 | 0.730 |
| Daily carbohydrate intake (g) | 324 ± 21 | 348 ± 16 | 361 ± 22 | 0.405 |
| Weight (kg) | 84.3 ± 2.2 | 84.7 ± 2.0 | 84.9 ± 1.8 | 0.979 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 29.3 ± 0.5 | 29.6 ±.5 | 29.0 ± 0.5 | 0.711 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 96.1 ± 1.4 | 96.8 ± 1.2 | 94.7 ± 1.0 | 0.457 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 105.1 ± 1.4 | 104.5 ± 0.9 | 103.7 ± 0.9 | 0.645 |
| Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) | 0.92 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.01 | 0.91 ± 0.01 | 0.212 |
| Body fat mass (kg) | 33.9 ± 1.0 | 33.2 ± 0.9 | 32.7 ± 0.9 | 0.651 |
| Body muscle mass (kg) | 31.2 ± 1.0 | 31.6 ± 1.0 | 32.0 ± 0.8 | 0.818 |
| Subcutaneous fat area (SFA, cm2) | 277 ± 11 | 270 ± 9 | 255 ± 9 | 0.307 |
| Visceral fat area (VFA, cm2) | 92 ± 5 | 105 ± 5 | 96 ± 4 | 0.112 |
| Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c, %) | 5.7 (0.6) | 5.6 (0.6) | 5.6 (0.8) | 0.853 |
| Fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) | 5.10 (0.97) | 5.05 (0.89) | 5.07 (1.08) | 0.763 |
| Fasting insulin (mIU/L) | 27.4 (24.7) | 31.8 (24.8) | 28.2 (17.7) | 0.459 |
| C-peptide (pg/mL) | 1,608.8 ± 104.2 | 1,660.2 ± 100.1 | 1,651.7 ± 88.5 | 0.923 |
| HOMA-IR | 6.76 (9.68) | 7.38 (5.90) | 7.04 (6.67) | 0.612 |
| HOMA-IS | 0.17 (0.17) | 0.17 (0.19) | 0.16 (0.12) | 0.473 |
| QUICKI | 0.30 (0.04) | 0.29 (0.03) | 0.29 (0.03) | 0.253 |
| Uric acid (UA, μmol/L) | 380 ± 13 | 384 ± 13 | 416 ± 16 | 0.144 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.72 ± 0.14 | 4.76 ± 0.13 | 4.73 ± 0.13 | 0.978 |
| LDL-c (mmol/L) | 2.99 ± 0.13 | 3.01 ± 0.12 | 3.03 ± 0.12 | 0.974 |
| Triglycerides (TG, mmol/L) | 1.74 (1.52) | 2.10 (1.55) | 2.12 (2.56) | 0.086 |
| HDL-c (mmol/L) | 1.13 ± 0.03 | 1.10 ± 0.03 | 1.04 ± 0.03 | 0.161 |
| TG/HDL-c | 1.58 (1.52) | 1.84 (1.88) | 2.02 (2.87) | 0.044 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 130 ± 2 | 136 ± 2 | 131 ± 2 | 0.086 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 82 ± 2 | 87 ± 2 | 84 ± 2 | 0.112 |
LCD, low-carbohydrate diet; TRE, time-restricted eating; Both, combination treatment; BMI, body mass index; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment insulin resistance; HOMA-IS, homeostatic model assessment of insulin sensitivity; QUICKI, quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index; LDL-c, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-c, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. All data are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for normal distribution or median (interquartile range) for abnormal distribution. Differences between treatment arms (LCD, TRE, and both) were tested by one-way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis H test.