Table 2.

Levels of Influence on HRM practices

Countries	Levels of influence
	Macro	Meso	Micro
China	Indigenous influences: Confucianism and feudalism Modern Influences: Market-oriented economy with socialist characteristics (Cooke, 2011)	Contingency factors: ownership (e.g., State-owned enterprises), size and national importance Hybrid organizations MNC influences	Guanxi (Confucian value of individual's social network and relationships) influences employees' values and behavior
India	Indigenous influences: Socialist and secular values and strong industrial democracy Political intervention Paternalistic ideology Modern Influences: Liberalization agenda and global integration	Contingency factors: Mainly in the form of industry- and sector-specific models of HRM Multivergence at an industry level MNC influences	Duality of individual Jugaad (finding a creative fix to a tricky problem) and Gandhian values of customer-centricity leads to an external locus of control in framing behaviours and actions
Vietnam	Indigenous influences: Paternalistic ideology Aspects of Confucianism and collectivist philosophy Modern Influences: Doi moi Liberalization	Diverse set of contingency factors: ownership, size, industry, culture, strategy, history MNC influences	Relationship-based approaches Personal connections Organizational and personal commitment Experience and age Team-based approaches
Kazakhstan	Indigenous influences: ‘Stans’ and Soviet model Weak formal institutions Nepotism and kinship Modern Influences: Partial adoption of global HR best practices	Communal obligations Hybrid forms of firms (Traditional SOEs and SOEs with minor adaptations) Multivergence at an industry level Partial MNC Influences	Assess via Rushyldyq Family ties Personal connection Geographical affiliation Relational capital
UAE	Indigenous influences: Based on traditional tribal way of life and is strongly influenced by Islam Modern Influences: Knowledge driven economy and cultural hub One of the most liberal countries in the region with high levels of tolerance and acceptance of other religions and faiths	Localization obligations Hybrid forms of firms (Local firms, MNEs and SMEs) Corssvergence and Multivergence in knowledge-based industries Convergence and MNE Influences in traditional industries Divergence in SMEs	Emiratization Wasta Emphasizing the importance of religion, family, education and success on one hand, but then also evidence of high levels of tolerance and acceptance of other religions and faiths