Table 2.
Summary of evidence of lifestyle change and pharmacologic treatments.
| Lifestyle change and pharmacologic treatment | Reference | Clinical evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Weight gain | Giollo et al. (71) | Increase in spine BMD by 1.1% over 20 weeks; no change in hip |
| Mika et al. (72) | No change over 2 years | |
| Compston et al. (73); Gordon et al. (74) | No change over 1 year | |
| Viapiana et al. (75) | Increase in spine and hip BMD by 4.8 and 7.1% respectively over 15 months | |
| Weight gain + menses restoration | Miller et al. (8) | Mean annual increase in spine and hip BMD by 3.1 and 1.8% respectively |
| Misra et al. (76) | Stabilization of BMD measures over 9 months | |
| Dominguez et al. (77) | Increase in spine and hip BMD by 4.6 and 3.1% respectively over 2.2 months | |
| Calcium and vitD supplementation | - | - |
| Oral contraceptives | Grinspoon et al. (78); Vescovi et al. (79) | Reduction in bone resorption and formation markers |
| Golden et al. (80); Strokosch et al. (81) | No increase in BMD over 1 year vs placebo | |
| Warren et al. (82); Hergenroeder et al. (83) | Improvement in lumbar spine but not hip BMD over 1 year vs placebo | |
| Sowińska et al. (84) | Increase in BMD from baseline over 4 years | |
| Transdermal estradiol | Misra et al. (85); Ackerman et al. (86) | Increase in spine and hip BMD over 18 months vs placebo |
| Androgens | Miller et al. (87) | No changes in osteocalcin and BALP levels after transdermal testosterone vs placebo |
| Miller et al. (88) | No increase in BMD from baseline over 12 months transdermal testosterone | |
| Bloch et al. (89) | No increase in BMD after DHEA vs placebo | |
| Di Vasta et al. (90) | Stabilization of femoral neck BMD after DHEA + oral contraceptives vs placebo | |
| IGF-1 | Misra et al. (91); Grinspoon et al. (92) | Increase in bone formation markers vs placebo |
| Grinspoon et al. (93) | Improvement in BMD after IGF-1 + oral contraceptives vs IGF-1 alone | |
| Fazeli et al. (94) | No changes in bone turnover markers after rh-GH | |
| Bisphosphonates | Golden et al. (95) | Increase in femoral neck but not lumbar spine BMD after alendronate |
| Miller et al. (96); Miller et al. (88) | Increase in spine BMD after risedronate | |
| Haines et al. (97) | Increase in spine BMD after risedronate + IGF-1 vs risedronate alone | |
| Denosumab | Jamieson et al. (98) | Increase in spine, hip and femoral neck BMD |
| Teriparatide | Milos et al. (99); Shibli-Rahhal et al. (100) | Increase in femoral neck BMD |
| Fazeli et al. (101) | Increase in lumbar spine BMD | |
| Recombinant leptin | Welt et al. (102); Chou et al. (103); Foo et al. (104) | Increase in bone formation markers |
| Sienkiewicz et al. (105) | Increase in lumbar spine BMD |
BMD, bone mineral density. vitD, vitamin D. BALP, bone alkaline phosphatase. DHEA, dehydroepiandrosterone. IGF-1, recombinant human insulin-like growth factor 1. rh-GH, recombinant human Growth Hormone.