Table 3.
Associations between dietary UPF (as tertiles of % of total energy intake) and cognitive performance in adults ≥ 60 years old with and without pre-existing chronic conditions (CVD or diabetes) from NHANES 2011–2014
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β (95% CI) | P value | β (95% CI) | P value | β (95% CI) | P value | β (95% CI) | P-value | |
| Without pre-existing chronic health conditions (n = 453) | ||||||||
| CERAD recall | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | − 0.27 (− 1.51, 0.97) | 0.665 | − 0.26 (− 1.33, 0.80) | 0.620 | − 0.32 (− 1.38, 0.74) | 0.547 | − 0.33 (− 1.35, 0.70) | 0.523 |
| T3 | − 1.13 (− 2.52, 0.25) | 0.106 | − 0.72 (− 1.92, 0.47) | 0.225 | − 0.79 (− 2.02, 0.43) | 0.195 | − 0.75 (− 1.97, 0.50) | 0.218 |
| P for-trend | 0.107 | 0.228 | 0.196 | 0.219 | ||||
| CERAD delayed recall | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | 0.09 (− 0.55, 0.74) | 0.771 | 0.14 (− 0.43, 0.71) | 0.620 | 0.15 (− 0.43, 0.72) | 0.605 | 0.15 (− 0.41, 0.71) | 0.591 |
| T3 | − 0.33 (− 1.10, 0.43) | 0.380 | − 0.08 (− 0.77, 0.61) | 0.810 | − 0.05 (− 0.75, 0.64) | 0.872 | 0.01 (− 0.66, 0.68) | 0.979 |
| P for-trend | 0.395 | 0.826 | 0.880 | 0.970 | ||||
| Animal fluency | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | − 0.18 (− 2.12, 1.76) | 0.852 | − 0.21 (− 1.89, 1.47) | 0.797 | − 0.10 (− 1.76, 1.55) | 0.898 | − 0.09 (− 1.72, 1.54) | 0.912 |
| T3 | − 2.04 (− 3.85, − 0.22) | 0.029 | − 1.53 (− 2.96, − 0.09) | 0.037 | − 1.40 (− 2.72, − 0.07) | 0.040 | − 1.37 (− 2.72, − 0.03) | 0.046 |
| P for-trend | 0.030 | 0.040 | 0.041 | 0.049 | ||||
| Digit symbol | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | − 1.80 (− 5.89, 2.89) | 0.377 | − 1.34 (− 4.37, 1.69) | 0.375 | − 1.51 (− 4.33, 1.31) | 0.285 | − 1.39 (− 4.14, 1.36) | 0.312 |
| T3 | − 3.78 (− 9.04, 1.48) | 0.153 | − 1.35 (− 4.97, 2.27) | 0.454 | − 1.57 (− 5.07, 1.93) | 0.368 | − 1.27 (− 4.69, 2.15) | 0.456 |
| P for-trend | 0.150 | 0.445 | 0.364 | 0.448 | ||||
| With pre-existing chronic health conditions (n = 2242) | ||||||||
| CERAD recall | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | 0.02 (− 0.62, 0.66) | 0.948 | − 0.01 (− 0.57, 0.54) | 0.962 | − 0.01 (− 0.57, 0.54) | 0.955 | − 0.02 (− 0.59, 0.54) | 0.932 |
| T3 | − 0.11 (− 0.65, 0.42) | 0.674 | − 0.24 (− 0.75, 0.27) | 0.347 | − 0.24 (− 0.74, 0.28) | 0.352 | − 0.24 (− 0.76, 0.27) | 0.340 |
| P for-trend | 0.648 | 0.337 | 0.343 | 0.331 | ||||
| CERAD delayed recall | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | − 0.04 (− 0.40, 0.32) | 0.811 | − 0.01 (− 0.33, 0.30) | 0.922 | − 0.02 (− 0.33, 0.29) | 0.906 | − 0.02 (− 0.34, 0.29) | 0.891 |
| T3 | − 0.08 (− 0.15, 0.31) | 0.492 | 0.05 (− 0.24, 0.33) | 0.735 | 0.05 (− 0.24, 0.33) | 0.730 | 0.04 (− 0.23, 0.32) | 0.748 |
| P for-trend | 0.446 | 0.718 | 0.712 | 0.728 | ||||
| Animal fluency | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | 0.42 (− 0.56, 1.39) | 0.389 | 0.17 (− 0.67, 1.02) | 0.679 | 0.15 (− 0.69, 0.99) | 0.717 | 0.12 (− 0.72, 0.97) | 0.764 |
| T3 | 0.31 (− 0.54, 1.16) | 0.465 | 0.15 (− 0.55, 0.85) | 0.661 | 0.14 (− 0.53, 0.82) | 0.667 | 0.13 (− 0.52, 0.78) | 0.683 |
| P for-trend | 0.490 | 0.675 | 0.677 | 0.690 | ||||
| Digit symbol | ||||||||
| T1 (Reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| T2 | 1.33 (− 1.37, 4.03) | 0.323 | 0.75 (− 1.06, 2.57) | 0.403 | 0.66 (− 1.14, 2.47) | 0.457 | 0.65 (− 1.16, 2.45) | 0.471 |
| T3 | 0.74 (− 1.31, 2.79) | 0.465 | 0.19 (− 1.51, 1.90) | 0.818 | 0.21 (− 1.52, 1.95) | 0.806 | 0.36 (− 1.39, 2.11) | 0.681 |
| P for-trend | 0.519 | 0.880 | 0.857 | 0.721 | ||||
Model 1: unadjusted
Model 2: demographics (age, gender, ethnicity, education, poverty–income ratio)
Model 3: demographics and lifestyle factors (physical activity, smoking status)
Model 4: demographics, lifestyle factors, BMI, and depression
UPF ultra-processed food