Table 3.

Studies included in the review

First author and publication year	Study designs	Population groups	Domains	Barriers and facilitators investigated	AMSTAR-2 rating
Abaraogu U 2018 [14]	8 cross-sectional 4 cohort 5 qualitative 1 mixed-methods	Older adults	Leisure	Better skills Better/More positive general social support Existence of facilities within places Higher motivation and having goals More positive beliefs about consequences More/Better knowledge Participation in supervised activities Worse health condition	Moderate
Aranda-Balboa M 2020 [15]	27 cross-sectional	Adults	Travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better road safety Better street connectivity Better/More positive general social support Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Broekhuizen K 2014 [16]	17 observational 16 experimental	Children and adolescents	Education	Availability of personal equipment Better general urban design and built environment Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Longer recess duration Participation in supervised activities Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Brunton G 2005 [17]	5 experimental 5 qualitative	Children and adolescents	Leisure	Better public transport provision Better road safety Better skills Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher motivation and having goals Higher physical activity of friends and family Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Lower costs More positive beliefs about consequences Negative emotions Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Bunn F 2008 [18]	6 cross-sectional 4 experimental 14 qualitative	Adults	Leisure	Better quality of instructors Better quality of physical activity programs Better/More positive general social support More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences More/Better knowledge Negative emotions Positive past experiences	Moderate
Congello N 2018 [19]	1 experimental 3 qualitative 3 mixed-methods	Adults and older adults	Leisure	Better public transport provision Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from friends Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Craike M 2019 [20]	67 cross-sectional 6 cohort	Adults	Leisure	Better walkability Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences Quality and condition of places Worse health condition Worse perceived safety	Low
D’Haese S 2015 [21]	61 cross-sectional 4 cohort	Children	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better land use mix Better road safety Better street connectivity Better walkability Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Low
Day K 2018 [22]	143 cross-sectional 16 cohort	Adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure, travel, and work/education	Better general urban design and built environment Better road safety	Low
Dennett R 2020 [23]	41 experimental	Adults and older adults	Leisure	Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive support from friends Better/More positive support from others Higher motivation and having goals More/Better knowledge	High
Elshahat S 2020 [24]	32 cross-sectional 1 case study	Adults and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better land use mix Better public transport provision Better road safety Better street connectivity Better walkability Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Escalante Y 2014 [25]	8 experimental	Children and adolescents	Work/Education	Existence of facilities within places Quality and condition of places	Low
Farrance C 2016 [26]	5 experimental 3 qualitative 2 mixed-methods	Older adults	Leisure	Better quality of instructors Better quality of physical activity programs Better/More positive social norms More positive beliefs about consequences Positive past experiences	Moderate
Hilland T 2020 [27]	32 cross-sectional 3 cohort	Adults and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better walkability Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places More positive beliefs about consequences Quality and condition of places Worse health condition Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Hutzler Y 2010 [28]	7 cross-sectional 12 experimental 4 qualitative	Adolescents and adults	Leisure	Better public transport provision Better skills Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive support from family More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences	Low
Ikeda E 2018 [29]	31 cross-sectional 5 cohort 1 case–control	Children and adolescents	Travel	Better land use mix Better road safety Better walkability Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Better/More positive support from others Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Jaarsma E 2014 [30]	51 cross-sectional 3 cohort 3 experimental	Adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure	Better general urban design and built environment Better skills Better/More positive social norms Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher motivation and having goals Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Lower costs More positive beliefs about consequences More/Better knowledge Worse health condition	Moderate
Kärmeniemi M 2018 [31]	21 cohort 30 experimental	Children, adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better walkability Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Liangruenrom M 2019 [32]	167 cross-sectional	Children, adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure, travel, work/education, and household	Better general urban design and built environment Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Better/More positive support from others Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences More/Better knowledge Positive past experiences Worse health condition	Moderate
Lindsay Smith G 2017 [33]	22 cross-sectional 3 cohort 2 experimental	Older adults	Leisure	Better/More positive general social support Negative emotions	Moderate
Lorenc T 2008 [34]	16 qualitative	Children, adolescents, and adults	Travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better road safety Better skills Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Better/More positive support from others Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher motivation and having goals Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Lower costs More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences Negative emotions Quality and condition of places Worse health condition Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Maitland C 2013 [35]	38 observational 11 experimental	Adolescents	Leisure	Availability of personal equipment Better/More positive support from family Higher physical activity of friends and family	Moderate
Mendonça G 2014 [36]	64 cross-sectional 9 cohort 2 experimental	Adolescents	Leisure and travel	Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends	Low
Olekszechen N 2016 [37]	25 cross-sectional 3 experimental 5 qualitative	Adults	Travel	Availability of personal equipment Better land use mix Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Existence of facilities within places Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours More positive beliefs about consequences Negative emotions Positive past experiences	Low
Pan X 2021 [38]	14 cross-sectional 2 cohort 5 experimental	Children and adolescents	Travel	Existence of active travel infrastructure Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	High
Pollard T 2017 [39]	36 cross-sectional	Adults and older adults	Leisure and travel	Pleasure and fun with physical activity	High
Pont K 2009 [40]	38 cross-sectional	Children and adolescents	Travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better road safety Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Rhodes R 2013 [41]	8 cross-sectional 52 cohort	Adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure	Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher motivation and having goals Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours More positive beliefs about capabilities Negative emotions Positive past experiences Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Rhodes R 2020 [42]	37 cross-sectional 9 cohort	Children, adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Higher motivation and having goals More positive beliefs about consequences	Moderate
Ridgers N 2012 [43]	42 cross-sectional 11 not specified	Children and adolescents	Work/Education	Better quality of physical activity programs Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive social norms Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher motivation and having goals Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Longer recess duration Participation in supervised activities Quality and condition of places	Moderate
Rothman L 2018 [44]	61 cross-sectional 1 case–control 1 mixed-methods	Children and adolescents	Travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better road safety Existence of active travel infrastructure More positive beliefs about consequences Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Salvo G 2018 [45]	36 qualitative	Adults and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better road safety Better street connectivity Better/More positive social norms Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Negative emotions Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Low
Scarapicchia T 2017 [46]	20 cohort	Adults	Leisure	Availability of personal equipment Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Positive past experiences	Moderate
Smith M 2017 [47]	15 cross-sectional 12 cohort 1 experimental	Children, adolescents, adults, and older adults	Travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better land use mix Better public transport provision Better road safety Better street connectivity Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places	Moderate
Stanley R 2012 [48]	17 cross-sectional 5 experimental	Adolescents	Leisure and work/education	Availability of personal equipment Better land use mix Better quality of physical activity programs Better/More positive general social support Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Better/More positive support from others Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Pleasure and fun with physical activity Higher physical activity of friends and family Longer recess duration More positive beliefs about capabilities More positive beliefs about consequences Participation in supervised activities Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Stappers N 2018 [49]	1 cross-sectional 4 cohort 10 experimental 4 not specified	Adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better public transport provision Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places	Low
Tovar M 2018 [50]	21 cross-sectional	Adults and older adults	Leisure	Better/More positive general social support More positive beliefs about capabilities Worse health condition Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Van Cauwenberg J 2011 [51]	28 cross-sectional 3 cohort	Older adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better land use mix Better public transport provision Better road safety Better street connectivity Better walkability Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Van Cauwenberg J 2018 [52]	71 cross-sectional 1 cohort	Older adults	Leisure	Better land use mix Better public transport provision Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places	Low
Van Hecke L 2018 [53]	14 cross-sectional 17 qualitative	Adolescents	Leisure	Availability of personal equipment Better public transport provision Better road safety Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Quality and condition of places	Moderate
Van Holle V 2012 [54]	69 cross-sectional 1 cohort	Adults and older adults	Leisure and travel	Better general urban design and built environment Better public transport provision Better road safety Better walkability Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate
Xiao C 2019 [55]	9 experimental	Adults	Travel	Better public transport provision	Moderate
Yarmohammadi, S 2019 [56]	20 cross-sectional 14 qualitative	Older adults	Leisure	Better general urban design and built environment Better/More positive general social support Existence of facilities within places Higher motivation and having goals Lack of time and presence of concurrent behaviours Lower costs More positive beliefs about consequences Negative emotions Participation in supervised activities Quality and condition of places Worse health condition	Moderate
Zhang R 2019 [57]	25 cross-sectional	Children, adolescents, adults, and older adults	Leisure	Better road safety Better/More positive social norms Better/More positive support from family Better/More positive support from friends Existence of active travel infrastructure Existence of facilities within places Existence of, shorter distance to, and better access to places Quality and condition of places Worse perceived safety	Moderate