Table 1.
Characteristics of study population and dietary intakes of carotenoids and vitamin A by lung cancer incident status, SCCS.
| Characteristic | Study Populations | p-Value * | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cases | Non-Cases | ||
| 1204 | 64,346 | ||
| Age (years) (mean ± SD) | 55.1 ± 8.5 | 51.6 ± 8.5 | <0.001 |
| Sex (%) | <0.001 | ||
| Female | 49.3 | 59.6 | |
| Male | 50.7 | 40.4 | |
| Race (%) | 0.07 | ||
| European American | 31.1 | 28.2 | |
| African American | 65.8 | 68.0 | |
| others | 3.2 | 3.8 | |
| BMI (kg/m2) (%) | <0.001 | ||
| <25 | 44.8 | 24.8 | |
| 25–30 | 29.6 | 29.7 | |
| ≥30 | 25.7 | 45.5 | |
| Education level (%) | <0.001 | ||
| <High school | 40.0 | 28.4 | |
| High school | 33.3 | 33.5 | |
| >High school | 26.7 | 38.1 | |
| Annual household incomes (%) | <0.001 | ||
| <USD 15,000 | 67.6 | 55.3 | |
| USD 15,000–USD 49,999 | 29.1 | 35.8 | |
| ≥USD 50,000 | 3.3 | 8.9 | |
| Smoking status (%) | <0.001 | ||
| Current smokers | 75.8 | 41.1 | |
| Former smokers | 17.7 | 21.7 | |
| Never smokers | 6.5 | 37.2 | |
| Pack years (the number of packs of cigarettes smoked/day * smoked years) (mean ± SD) |
34.1 ± 25.7 | 22.4 ± 22.0 | <0.001 |
| Ever diagnosed with COPD (%) | 15.4 | 8.4 | <0.001 |
| Alcohol consumption (the number of drinks per day), (mean ± SD) |
1.7 ± 4.3 | 1.3 ± 3.6 | <0.001 |
| Total energy intake, kcal/day, (mean ± SD) | 2699.7 ± 1508.3 | 2582.0 ± 1458.0 | 0.006 |
| Vegetable intake, (times/day) | <0.001 | ||
| <1 | 12.0 | 11.0 | |
| 1 | 43.2 | 37.4 | |
| 2 | 30.6 | 34.5 | |
| ≥3 | 14.2 | 17.1 | |
| Fruit or fruit juice intake, (times/day) | <0.001 | ||
| <1 | 29.8 | 23.2 | |
| 1 | 32.9 | 34.9 | |
| 2 | 19.7 | 22.9 | |
| ≥3 | 17.7 | 19.0 | |
| Dietary carotenoids intake, median (Q1, Q3) (µg/1000 Kcal) | |||
| α-carotene | 134.0 (75.9, 249.7) | 150.2 (81.4, 281.5) | <0.001 |
| β-carotene | 1370.8 (859.7, 2355.9) | 1504.3 (924.5, 2414.4) | 0.009 |
| β-cryptoxanthin | 56.2 (31.0, 118.3) | 67.9 (35.4, 130.9) | <0.001 |
| Lutein and zeaxanthin | 1069.9 (670.2, 1869.1) | 1137.3 (694.8, 1957.1) | 0.04 |
| Lycopene | 1856.4 (1280.3, 2791.8) | 2012.0 (1353.8, 2866.7) | 0.002 |
| Vitamin A, RAE & | 353.0 (260.0, 456.7) | 353.8 (270.1, 458.7) | 0.31 |
* p-values calculation: age, pack years, alcohol consumption, and total energy intake were calculated by t-test; sex, race, BMI categories, educational level, annual household incomes, smoking status, and ever diagnosed with COPD, vegetables and fruits/fruit juice intake times per day were calculated by chi-square test; carotenoids and vitamin A intake levels were compared by Wilcoxon rank-sum test. & RAE is retinol activity equivalents.