Table 1.
Pharmacological and natural products known to modulate autophagy.
| Autophagy Inducer/ Inhibitor |
Target | Drug(s) | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Clinically available
inducers |
mTOR inhibitors | Rapamycin | [134] |
| Everolimus | |||
| Temsirolimus | |||
| PI3K/mTOR inhibitors | Dactolisib | ||
| AMPK activators | Metformin | ||
| Simvastatin | |||
| Lipid metabolism | Carbamazepine | ||
|
Inducers with potential
clinical relevance |
Sirtuins | Polyphenols | [135] |
| (resveratrol) | |||
| Unknown | Phenolic oleosides | [135,136,137,138] | |
| Caffeine | |||
| Alkaloids | |||
| Terpenes and terpenoids | |||
| Ilimaquinone | |||
| Paratocarpin E | |||
| Beclin 1/Vps34 | Tat-beclin-1 | [139] | |
| TFEB | Trehalose | [135,140] | |
| Curcumin | |||
| AMPK activators | Polyphenols | [140] | |
| Epigallocatechin gallate | |||
| Kaempferol | |||
| Quercetin | |||
| Clinically available inhibitors | Lysosomotropic agents (antimalarials) |
Chloroquine | [134] |
| Hydroxychloroquine | |||
| Inhibitors with potential clinical relevance | Lysosomotropic agents | Lys05 | [141] |
| Vps34 inhibitors | 3-MA | [134] | |
| Wortmannin | |||
| ULK1/2 inhibitor | SBI-0206965 | ||
| MRT67307 | |||
| MRT68921 | |||
| USP13 and USP10 inhibitor | Spautin-1 | ||
| ATG4B inhibitor | NSC185058 | ||
| Microtubules | Vinca alkaloids | [140] | |
| Colchicine | |||
| Autophagosomal acidification | Azithromycin | ||
| Clarithromycin | |||
| Matrine | |||
| Unknown | Lucanthone | [140,142] | |
| Coibamide A | |||
| Dicitrinone B | |||
| ATP synthase inhibitor | Bafilomycin A | [141] | |
| P62 | Verteporfin | [134] |