Table 3.
Saffron by-products of different geographical origins, major components, and applications.
| By-Product (Origin and Type of Extract) | Major Components | Concentration | Application | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sepals (Fiesole, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG Trans-3-Gg Cis-2-G Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol glucoside Kaempferol sinapoyl glucoside |
3.1 0.8 0.2 6.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [98] |
| Stamens (Fiesole, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG Trans-3-Gg Cis-4-GG Trans-2-G Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Methyl quercetin derivative Methyl quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside |
112.2 33.4 22.0 20.7 1.7 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [98] |
| Sepals (Perugia, Italy; ethanolic) | Traces of crocin Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol glucoside Kaempferol sinapoyl glucoside |
nd 8.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [98] |
| Stamens. (Perugia, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG | 4 | mg/g | Phytochemicals | [98] |
| Trans-2-G | 1.3 | ||||
| Methyl quercetin diglucoside | 2.1 | ||||
| Quercetin diglucoside | 1.2 | ||||
| Methyl quercetin derivative | 1.2 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside | 0.9 | ||||
| Kaempferol diglucoside | 0.8 | ||||
| Petals (Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India; aqueous) | Not detected | Kashmir dye green and yellow tones | [66] | ||
| Petals (Kerman, Iran; aqueous) | Methanol | 355 | ppb | Volatile compounds in the pharmaceutical industry | [42] |
| Biogenix aldehyde fragment | 303 | ||||
| Acetic acid | 492 | ||||
| Isobutanal | 694 | ||||
| Furanone | 6397 | ||||
| 2,3-butanedione | 524 | ||||
| Petals (Sardinia, Italy; aqueous) | Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 2790 | mg/L | Antioxidant and colon anticancer activities. | [147] |
| Phenylalanine | 1072 | ||||
| Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 822 | ||||
| Tyrosine | 619 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-glucoside | 368 | ||||
| Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside | 268 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 207 | ||||
| Petals (Northeast, Iran; ethanolic and aqueous) | Pelargonidin 3,5-glycosides | 56.1 | % | Antioxidant and colorant activities. | [148] |
| 3,5 cyanidin-diglycosides | 20.9 | ||||
| Petunidin | 15.5 | ||||
| Delphinidin 3-glycosides | 4.1 | ||||
| Pelargonidin 3-glycosides | 3.4 | ||||
| Petals and anthers (Navelli, Italy; ethanolic, oil, and aqueous) | Crocin | 0.6 | % | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory (in vivo; in vitro). | [149] |
| Catechin | 0.2 | ||||
| Rutin | 0.1 | ||||
| Epicatechin | 0.08 | ||||
| p-OH benzoic acid | 0.04 | ||||
| Safranal | 0.02 | ||||
| Vanillic acid | 0.02 | ||||
| Galic acid | 0.09 | ||||
| Safranal | 0.05 | ||||
| Quercetin | 0.01 | ||||
| Petals (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; ohmic extraction) | Crocin | 81.2 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [41] |
| Safranal | 5.5 | ||||
| Catechin | 1.4 | ||||
| Epicatechin | 1.2 | ||||
| Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 74.2 | ||||
| Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 10.3 | ||||
| Petunidin 2,5-di-O-glucoside | 8.6 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 59.5 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.2 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 6.1 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.5 | ||||
| Kaempferol | 5.4 | ||||
| Petals. (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; ultrasound extraction) | Crocin | 79.02 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [41] |
| Safranal | 4.03 | ||||
| Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 67.88 | ||||
| Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 10.74 | ||||
| Petunidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside | 7.39 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 54.32 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.16 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 5.27 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.12 | ||||
| Petals. (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; microwave extraction) | Crocin | 77.42 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [41] |
| Safranal | 5.03 | ||||
| Epicatechin | 1.02 | ||||
| Vanillic acid | 1.03 | ||||
| Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 56.36 | ||||
| Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 11.44 | ||||
| Malvidin O-glucoside | 7.94 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 59.49 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.16 | ||||
| Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 6.13 | ||||
| Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.51 | ||||
| Kaempferol | 5.42 | ||||