Table 2.

Metabolic health parameters measured at the end of each diet

	Baseline	Washout	ML	EL	SED	p
Blood pressure
SBP (mmHg)	127∗	120∗∗	119∗∗	119∗∗	1.82	<0.001
DBP (mmHg)	81∗	76∗∗	76∗∗	75∗∗	1.14	<0.001
Pulse (beats/min)	69∗	63∗∗	62∗∗	64∗∗	1.11	<0.001
Glucoregulatory factors
Fasting glucose (mmol/L)	5.70∗	5.30∗∗	5.27∗∗	5.30∗∗	0.09	<0.001
Fasting insulin	7.61∗	5.97∗∗	5.37∗∗	5.70∗∗	0.34	<0.001
HOMA-IR	1.72∗	1.34∗∗	1.18∗∗	1.22∗∗	0.10	<0.001
HbA1c mmol/mola	35.3∗	35.5∗	33.0∗∗	33.2∗∗	0.65	<0.001
Fasting plasma lipids
Cholesterol (mmol/L)	5.50∗	4.86∗∗	4.92∗∗	4.94∗∗	0.15	<0.001
HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)	1.28∗	1.17∗∗	1.27∗	1.22∗,∗∗	0.04	<0.001
LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)	3.26∗	2.84∗∗	2.97∗∗	2.90∗∗	0.01	<0.001
NEFAs (mmol/L)	0.59∗	0.60∗,∗∗	0.75∗∗∗	0.67∗∗	0.04	0.05
Triglycerides (mmol/L)	1.77∗	1.38∗∗	0.97∗∗∗	0.99∗∗∗	0.09	<0.001
Energy expenditure
TDEE (DLW)	–	–	2,871	2,846	100.7	0.184
RMR (kcal)	1,821∗,∗∗	1,729∗∗,∗∗∗	1,675∗∗∗	1,690∗∗∗	36	<0.001
Breakfast TEF (kcal)	131∗,∗∗	116∗,∗∗∗	147∗∗	98∗∗∗	8	<0.001
Breakfast TEF (% of EI)	15.4∗	14.0∗	19.0∗∗	27.6∗∗∗	1.5	<0.001
Sleep and activity by accelerometry
Average daily steps	6,611	6,966	6,992	7,046	449	0.762
Activity EE (kcals/day)	1,740	1,599	1,585	1,583	97	0.312
Sleep duration (min)	426	428	428	422	8.31	0.888

Data are expressed as means, n = 30. Means not sharing a superscript are significantly different (p < 0.05). DBP, diastolic blood pressure; EL, evening loaded; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; ML, morning loaded; RMR, resting metabolic rate; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SED, standard error of the difference, averaged over pairs when comparing more than two treatments; TDEE, total daily energy expenditure, measured by DLW; TEF, thermic effect of food.

^aHbA1c estimated from CGM data