Table 1.

Probiotics' effect on immune responses and vaccine efficacy.

Probiotic strain	Participants	Vaccine	Effects of probiotics on vaccine response	Reference
B. longum BB536	Human infants	DTP (diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus)	An increase in the ratio of IFN-γ/IL-4 secretion cells in the BB536 supplementation group	(92)
L. paracasei 431	Human adults	Inactivated trivalent influenza vaccine	No difference in A/H1N1, A/H3N2, and B strain-specific IgG/No difference in A/H1N1, A/H3N2, and B strain-specific IgA levels in saliva / No difference in seroconversion rates 3 w after vaccination	(118)
L. rhamnosus GG	Human pregnant women	Combined diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-Haemophilus influenza type b vaccine	Lower pneumococcal-specific IgG levels/Lower seroconversion rates for pneumococcal serotypes /Lower tetanus toxoid-specific IgG levels/No difference in Hib-specific IgG levels/Higher tolerogenic T regulatory (Treg) responses	(117)
L. paracasaei MoLac-1 (heat-killed)	Human adults	Inactivated trivalent influenza vaccine	No differences in natural killer cell activity, neutrophil bactericidal or phagocytosis activity/No difference in IgA, IgG, and IgM levels/Higher H3N2 specific IgG levels/No difference in seroconversion rates	(119)
B. lactis BB-12 / L. paracasei 431	Human adults	Inactivated trivalent influenza vaccine	An increase in influenza-specific IgG levels/Higher seroconversion rates for IgG/Higher influenza-specific IgA levels in saliva /No differences in NK-cells activity, number of CD4+T-lymphocytes and phagocytosis/No differences in INF-γ, IL-2, and IL-10 levels	(95)
LGG and inulin	Human adults	Nasal attenuated trivalent influenza vaccine	Increased seroprotection rate to the H3N2 strain, but not to the H1N1 or B strain	(106)
B. longum BL999 /L.rhamnosus LPR	Human infants	Hepatitis B Virus (HBV), DTP	An improvement in HepB surface antibody responses in subjects receiving monovalent and a DTPa-HepB combination vaccine at 6 months but not those who received 3 monovalent doses	(93)
B. bifum / B.infantis/ B.longum/ L.acidophilus	Human infants	Measles-Mumps-Rubella-Varicella vaccine	Higher overall seroconversion rates/No difference in specific seroconversion rates for rubella, mumps, measles, varicella/No difference in the rate of treatment-related adverse effects between the two groups	(96)
L. acidophilus CRL431/ L. rhamnosus GG	Human adults	Oral polio vaccine	An increase in poliovirus neutralizing antibody levels/ Increase in poliovirus-specific IgA and IgM levels /No change in poliovirus-specific IgG levels	(108)
L. casei GG	Human infants	Oral rotavirus vaccine	Higher number of rotavirus-specific IgM secreting cells/ Higher IgA seroconversion rates /Higher IgM seroconversion rates	(107)
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917	Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)-treated Gn piglets colonized with a defined commensal microbiota (DM)	Virulent human rotavirus (HRV)	An increase in the numbers of total immunoglobulin-secreting cells, HRV-specific antibody-secreting cells, activated antibody-forming cells, memory antibody-forming B cells, and naive antibody-forming B cells/ A Decreased in levels of pro-inflammatory but increased levels of immuno-regulatory cytokines and increased frequencies of Toll-like receptor-expressing cells	(109)
L.rhamnosus GG	Human gut microbiome transplanted neonatal Gn pig	Attenuated HRV vaccine	Significantly enhancement in HRV-specific IFN-γ producing T cell responses to the AttHRV vaccine. Neither doses of LGG significantly improved the protection rate, HRV-specific IgA and IgG antibody titers in serum, or IgA antibody titers in intestinal contents	(72)
L. plantarum	24-Month-old children	-	An increase in fecal sIgA titer /A Significant positive correlation between TGF-β1,TNF-α, and fecal sIgA	(100)
B. longum + gluco-oligosaccharide	Human adults	Influenza seasonal vaccine	Significantly higher number of senescent (CD28–CD57+) helper T cells/Significantly higher plasma levels of anti-CMV IgG and a greater tendency for CMV seropositivity/Higher numbers of CD28–CD57+ helper T cells	(94)
L. plantarum GUANKE (LPG)	Mice	SARS-CoV-2 vaccine	Enhancement of SARS-CoV-2 neutralization antibodies production/A boost in specific neutralization antibodies >8-fold in bronchoalveolar lavage and >2-fold in sera when LPG was given immediately after SARS-CoV-2 vaccine inoculation /Persistence in T-cell responses	(103)
Lactococcus lactis strain plasma (LC-Plasma)	Human adults	Dengue fever (DF)	Significant reduction in the cumulative incidence days of DF-like symptoms/Significantly reduced severity score in the LC-Plasma group	(111)
Lactobacillus  plantarum Probio-88	In vitro and in silico study	SARS-CoV-2 infection	A significant inhibition in the replication of SARS-CoV-2 and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels/A significant reduction in inflammatory markers such as IFN-α, IFN-β, and IL-6	(104)
probiotic Lactobacillus	Chickens	Herpesvirus of turkeys vaccine	An increase in the expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II on macrophages and B cells in spleen/A decrease in the number of CD4+CD25+ T regulatory	(99)
			cells in the spleen/ higher expression of IFN-α at 21dpi in the spleen/A decrease in the expression of tumor growth factor (TGF)-β4
probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle (EcN) 1917	Malnourished piglet model transplanted with human infant fecal microbiota (HIFM)	HRV vaccine	Increased frequencies of activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) and activated conventional dendritic cells (cDC)/increased frequencies of systemic activated and memory antibody-forming B cells and IgA+ B cells in the systemic tissues/Increase in the mean numbers of systemic and intestinal HRV-specific IgA antibody-secreting cells (ASCs), as well as HRV-specific IgA antibody titers in serum and small intestinal contents	(110)
Bacillus velezensis	Pigeons	Pigeon circovirus (PiCV)	Significant reduction in the PiCV viral load in the feces and spleen of pigeons/Up-regulation in Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), myxovirus resistance 1 (Mx1), signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and 4 (TLR4)gene expression	(115)
Lactococcus lactis NZ1330	BALB/c Mouse Model	Allergy to Amaranthus retroflexus pollens	Significantly reduction in the serum IgE level/Best performance in terms of improving allergies to Th1 and Treg responses	(112)
L.acidophilus; L.plantarum; Pediococcus pentosaceus; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; B.subtilis; B.licheniformis	Broiler chickens	Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) vaccine	Diminished the negative effect of live vaccine growth performance/reduced mortality rate, fecal shedding, and re-isolation of SE from liver, spleen, heart, and cecum	(102)
long-chain inulin (lcITF) and L.acidophilus W37 (LaW37)	Piglets	Salmonella Typhimurium strains (STM)	Enhanced vaccination efficacy by 2-fold /Higher relative abundance of Prevotellaceae and lower relative abundance of Lactobacillaceae in feces/Increased the relative abundance of fecal lactobacilli was correlated with higher fecal consistency	(105)
fecal microbiome+ Clostridium butyricum and Saccharomyces boulardii	Gpiglets	-	Increased the plasma concentrations of IL-23, IL-17, and IL-22, as well as the plasma levels of anti-M.hyo and anti-PCV2 antibodies/ Decreases in inflammation levels and oxidative stress injury, and improvement of intestinal barrier function	(116)
L.rhamnosus GG (LGG)	Patients with type 1 diabetes	Betapropiolactone- whole inactivated virus	Reduction in the inflammatory responses (i.e., IFN-γ, IL17A, IL-17F, IL-6, and TNF-α)/Significantly	(120)
			production of IL-17F prior to and after (90 ± 7 days later) vaccination
B. toyonensis BCT-7112T	Ewes of the Corriedale sheep	Recombinant Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (rETX)	Higher neutralizing antibody titers/An increase in serum levels for total IgG anti-rETX/Increase IgG isotypes IgG1 and IgG2 /Higher cytokine mRNA transcription levels for IL-2, IFN-γ, and transcription factor Bcl6	(113)
B. toyonensis and Saccharomyces boulardii	Sheep	Clostridium chauvoei vaccine	Significantly higher specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2 titers/Approximately 24- and 14-fold increases in total IgG levels/ Increased mRNA transcription levels of the IFN-γ, IL2, and Bcl6 genes	(114)