Table 1.
Main characteristics of studies reporting about gut microbiota in children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders.
| Ref. No | Study | Year | Country | Sample Size | Gender % M/F |
Mean Age in Years |
Mean BMI | Diagnostic Tool Patients Controls |
Sample Storage | Medication Use * |
Dietary Questionnaire | Evaluation of GIT Symptoms |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ASD + PDD − NOS | |||||||||||||
| [19] | Cao et al. | 2021 | China | ASD: 45 HC: 41 |
ASD: 80/20 HC: 82.9/17.1 |
ASD: 6.8 HC: 5.2 |
ASD: 16.6 HC: 15.2 |
AMSE CARS CABS DSM-5 |
Psychiatric evaluation ASD psychometric tests |
Microbial preservation solution was used, samples stored at room temperature | No ATB, probiotic or psychiatric medication prior sample collection | N/A | N/A |
| [25] | Kang et al. | 2018 | USA | ASD: 23 HC: 21 |
ASD: 95.7/4.3 HC: 71.4/28.6 |
ASD: 8.4 HC: 10.1 |
N/A | ATEC PDD-BI |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB or antifungal drugs 1 month prior sample collection | yes | 6-GSI |
| [26] | Carissimi et al. | 2019 | Italy | ASD: 30 HC: 14 |
ASD: 96.7/3.3 HC: 50/50 |
Median age ASD: 3 HC: 10 |
N/A | DSM-5 ADOS-2 GMDS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 2 weeks prior sample collection | N/A | GIH |
| [27] | Liu et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 30 HC: 20 |
ASD: 83/17 HC: 80/20 |
ASD: 4.4 HC: 4.3 |
N/A | DSM-5 ICD-10 |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic, prebiotic or antifungal drugs 3 months prior sample collection | Participants with special diets excluded | 6-GSI |
| [28] | Ma et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 45 HC: 45 |
ASD: 86.7/13.3 HC: 86.7/13.3 |
ASD: 7.0 HC: 7.3 |
N/A | DSM-5 CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection | 79-item food frequency questionnaire | N/A |
| [29] | Wang et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 43 HC: 31 |
ASD: 83.7/16.3 HC: 54.8/45.2 |
ASD: 4.5 HC: 3.1 |
N/A | DSM-5 | No psychiatric disorder |
−80 °C | N/A | yes | Rome IV |
| [30] | Dan et al. | 2020 | China | ASD: 143 HC: 143 |
ASD: 90.9/9.1 HC: 88.8/11.2 |
ASD: 4.9 HC: 5.2 |
N/A | DSM-5 | No serious psychiatric disorder | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection, no use of AIDs or antioxidant drugs | N/A | Rome IV |
| [31] | Kang et al. | 2013 | USA | ASD: 20 HC: 20 |
ASD: 90/10 HC: 85/15 |
ASD: 6.7 HC: 8.3 |
N/A | ADOS ADI-R ATEC PDD-BI |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB or antifungal drugs 1 month prior sample collection, probiotic and nutrient use recorded | Special diets and seafood consumption recorded | 6-GSI |
| [32] | Chen et al. | 2021 | China | ASD: 138 HC: 60 |
ASD: 84.8/15.2 HC: 45/55 |
ASD: 6.1 HC: 6.7 |
N/A | ADOS CARS DSM-5 WISC-R WPPSI |
Gesell development scales | −80 °C | No ATB 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | GSI |
| [33] | Vernocchi et al. | 2022 | Italy | ASD: 41 HC: 35 |
ASD: 87.8/12.2 HC: 60/40 |
ASD: 6.5 HC: 8 |
ASD: 16.5 HC: 15.8 |
DSM-5 ADOS-2 ADI-R CBCL IQ/DQ tests |
N/A | −80 °C | ATB, probiotic and psychiatric medication recorded | Specific diets recorded | Rome IV |
| [34] | Wong et al. | 2022 | China | ASD: 92 HC: 112 |
ASD: 100/0 HC: 100/0 |
ASD: 8.4 HC: 8.1 |
N/A | DSM-5 AQ-10 SDQ SCAS-P |
AQ-10 SDQ SCAS-P |
−80 °C | No ATB or regular probiotic use 1 month prior sample collection, use of psychiatric medication recorded | yes 7 day food record |
R4PDQ |
| [35] | Finegold et al. | 2010 | USA | ASD: 33 SIB: 7 HC: 8 |
ASD: 72.7/27.3 SIB: 28.6/71.4 HC: 62.5/37.5 |
Age range 2–13 |
N/A | Authors’ evaluation of social, language, sensory and behaviour impairment | N/A | −80 °C | No probiotic or ATB 1 month prior sample collection |
Special diets recorded | yes |
| [36] | Coretti et al. | 2018 | Italy | ASD: 11 HC: 14 |
ASD: 81.8/18.2 HC: 57.1/42.9 |
ASD: 1.5 HC: 1.5 |
N/A | DSM-5 ADOS-2 ADI-R GMDS VABS CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic, prebiotic or synbiotic 1 month prior sample collection | 3 days diet diary | Rome III |
| [37] | Li et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 59 HC: 30 |
ASD: 84.7/15.3 HC: 66.7/33.3 |
ASD: 4 HC: 5 |
N/A | DSM-5 ADOS ABC |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection, no AIDs or antioxidant drugs |
N/A | yes |
| [38] | Zhai et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 78 HC: 58 |
ASD: 71.8/28.2 HC: 53.4/46.6 |
ASD: 5.0 HC: 4.9 |
N/A | DSM-4-TR ICD-10 ATEC |
No history of ASD or neurological diseases | −80 °C | No ATB for 1 month prior sample collection, no probiotic or prebiotic | N/A | Participants with GI symptoms excluded |
| [39] | Ding et al. | 2020 | China | ASD: 77 HC: 50 |
ASD: 76.6/23.4 HC: 78/22 |
ASD: 1.6 HC: 1.8 |
N/A | DSM-5 CARS Social life ability scale, Gessel Develop. Schedules WISC |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 1 month prior sample collection | yes | N/A |
| [40] | Zou et al. | 2020 | China | ASD: 48 HC: 48 |
ASD: 79.2/20.8 HC: 50/50 |
ASD: 5 HC: 4 |
ASD: 17.4 HC: 16.3 |
DSM-4 ADI-R CGI-S ABC-I |
No serious psychiatric disorder | −80 °C | No ATB or probiotic prior sample collection | N/A | N/A |
| [41] | Ye et al. | 2021 | China | ASD: 71 HC: 18 |
ASD: 100/0 HC: 100/0 |
ASD: 4.3 HC: 4.6 |
N/A | ABC DSM-5 |
ABC DSM-5 |
−80 °C | No ATB or probiotic 1 month prior sample collection, no AIDs or antioxidant drugs in HC group | N/A | N/A |
| [42] | De Angelis et al. | 2013 | Italy | ASD: 10 PDD: 10 SIB: 10 |
46.7/53.3 in all participants |
Age range 4–10 |
N/A | ADOS ADI-R CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | Participants with GI symptoms excluded |
| [43] | Niu et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 114 HC: 40 |
ASD: 83.3/16.7 HC: 50/50 |
ASD: 4.5 HC: 4.2 |
N/A | DSM-5 ATEC |
N/A | N/A | No ATB, probiotic or other GI treatment 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | yes |
| [44] | Zurita et al. | 2020 | Ecuador | ASD: 25 HC: 34 |
ASD: 96/4 HC: 91.4/8.6 |
ASD: 8.9 HC: 8.5 |
N/A | ADI-R | SCQ | −80 °C | No ATB or steroids 2 weeks prior sample collection | 24-h dietary record | N/A |
| [45] | Fujishiro et al. | 2022 | Japan | ASD: 7 HC: 9 |
ASD: 71.4/28.6 HC: 66.7/33.3 |
ASD: 10.1 HC: 14.6 |
N/A | WISC-IV Denver-II ASSQ M-CHAT Paediatric and Psychological evaluation |
WISC-IV Denver-II ASSQ M-CHAT Paediatrician and Psychological evaluation |
−80 °C | N/A | yes | yes |
| [46] | Wan et al. | 2022 | China | ASD: 64 HC: 64 |
ASD: 82.8/17.2 HC: 84.4/15.6 |
Median age ASD: 2.5 HC: 2.3 |
N/A | DSM-4 DSM-5 |
SRS-2 | N/A | No ATB, antifungal drugs, probiotic or prebiotic 2 months prior sample collection | 3 day food record Food frequency questionnaire |
N/A |
| [47] | Gondalia et al. | 2012 | Australia | ASD: 51 HC: 53 |
ASD: 82.4/17.6 HC: 35.8/64.2 |
Age range 2–12 |
N/A | Psychiatrist, psychologist evaluation CARS |
N/A | −20 °C | No ATB or antifungal drugs 15 days prior sample collection, probiotic use recorded | N/A | yes |
| [48] | Son et al. | 2015 | USA | ASD: 59 SIB: 44 |
ASD: 88/12 SIB: 48/52 |
ASD: 10.3 SIB: 10.0 |
N/A | ADOS CBCL |
CBCL | −80 °C | No ATB or probiotic 1 month prior sample collection | One-week food/calorie count diary Special diets recorded |
QPGS-RIII SSC |
| [49] | Strati et al. | 2017 | Italy | ASD: 40 HC: 40 |
ASD: 77.5/22.5 HC: 70/30 |
ASD: 11.1 HC: 9.2 |
N/A | DSM-5 ADOS ABC CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection, no use of AIDs or antioxidant drugs |
N/A | Rome III |
| [50] | Berding et al. | 2018 | USA | ASD: 26 HC: 32 |
ASD: 73.1/26.9 HC: 59.4/40.6 |
ASD: 4.1 HC: 4.8 |
ASD M: 16.8 ASD F: 15.1 HC M: 16.3 HC F: 16.8 |
PDDBI-SV | N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection, no routine medication | YAQ 3-day food diary Patients with special diet excluded |
6-GSI Bristol stool chart |
| [51] | Pulikkan et al. | 2018 | India | ASD: 30 HC: 24 |
ASD: 93.3/6.7 † HC: 62.5/37.5 |
Median age ASD: 9.5 HC: 9.5 |
Median BMI ASD: 14.78 HC: 15.79 |
CARS INDT-ASD ISAA |
Paediatric evaluation | −80 °C | No ATB, AIDs or antioxidant 1 month prior sample collection | 7 days diet diary No gluten-free diet |
yes |
| [52] | Zhang et al. | 2018 | China | ASD: 35 HC: 6 |
ASD: 82.9/17.1 HC: 83.3/16.7 |
ASD: 4.9 HC: 4.6 |
N/A | DSM-5 | Medical evaluation Parent interview |
−80 °C | No ATB, probiotic, prebiotic or APs 1 month prior sample collection | Participants with special diets excluded | N/A |
| [53] | Ahmed et al. | 2020 | Egypt | ASD: 41 SIB: 45 HC: 45 |
ASD: 68.3/31.7 SIB: 48.9/51.1 HC: 62.2/37.8 |
ASD: 5.6 SIB: 4.3 HC: 5.4 |
N/A | DSM-5 CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No probiotic before sample collection | yes | 6-GSI |
| [54] | Ha et al. | 2021 | Korea | ASD: 54 HC: 38 |
ASD: 79.6/20.4 HC: 47.4/52.6 |
ASD: 7 HC: 6 |
N/A | DSM-5 ADOS-2 ADI-R SRS IQ tests |
Psychiatric evaluation IQ tests |
−80 °C | No ATB 3 months and probiotic for 15 days prior sample collection | N/A | N/A |
| [55] | Plaza-Díaz et al. | 2019 | Spain | ASD: 48 HC: 57 |
N/A | ASD: 1.8 HC: 2.1 |
ASD: 15.9 HC: 16.2 |
ADOS PDD-BI ADI-R Battelle test CARS DSM-5 ICD-10 |
N/A | −80 °C | No treatment of behavioural comorbidities | 24 h diet recorded Food frequency questionnaire |
N/A |
| [56] | Xie et al. | 2022 | China | ASD: 101 HC: 104 |
ASD: 85.1/14.9 HC: 76.9/22.1 |
ASD: 4.3 HC: 4.4 |
ASD: 16.3 HC: 15.7 |
DSM-5 CARS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, antifungal, AIDs, antioxidant, probiotic or prebiotic 1 month prior sample collection | Participants with special diets excluded | N/A |
| [57] | Chiappori et al. | 2022 | Italy | ASD: 6 HC: 6 |
ASD: 83.3/16.7 HC: 50/50 |
Age range: ASD: 6–17 HC: 10–20 |
N/A | DSM-5 | N/A | −80 °C | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| [58] | Sun et al. | 2019 | China | ASD: 9 HC: 6 |
ASD: 88.9/11.1 HC: 66.7/33.3 |
Age range 3–12 |
N/A | ICD-11 | N/A | −80 °C | N/A | N/A | yes |
| [59] | Parracho et al. | 2005 | UK | ASD: 58 SIB: 12 HC: 10 |
ASD: 82.8/17.2 SIB: 58.3/41.7 HC: 60/40 |
ASD: 7 SIB: 6 HC: 6 |
N/A | N/A | N/A | −20 °C | No probiotic or prebiotic in HC group for 6 months prior study, ATB usage recorded |
yes | yes |
| [60] | Adams et al. | 2011 | USA | ASD: 58 HC: 39 |
ASD: 86.2/13.8 HC: 46.2/53.8 |
ASD: 6.9 HC: 7.7 |
N/A | Professional assessment ATEC |
Parent report | N/A | No ATB or antifungal drugs 1 month prior sample collection, probiotic use recorded |
Seafood and fish-oil consumption recorded | 6-GSI |
| [61] | Wang et al. | 2011 | Australia | ASD: 23 SIB: 22 HC: 9 |
ASD: 91.3/8.7 SIB: 50/50 HC: 44.4/55.6 |
ASD: 5.1 SIB: 6 HC: 4.8 |
N/A | CARS DSM-IV |
ASSQ | −80 °C | ATB and probiotic use recorded | Special diets recorded | FGID questionnaire |
| [62] | Tomova et al. | 2015 | Slovakia | ASD: 10 SIB: 9 HC: 10 |
ASD: 90/10 SIB: 77.8/22.2 HC: 100/0 |
Age range ASD: 2–9 SIB: 5–17 HC: 2–11 |
N/A | ICD-10 CARS ADI |
Psychiatric evaluation Parent interview |
−80 °C | All participants medication free | N/A | Parental questionnaire |
| [63] | Rose et al. | 2018 | USA | ASD: 50 HC: 41 |
ASD: 84/16 HC: 92.7/7.3 |
Age range 3–12 |
N/A | DSM-4 ADI-R ADOS ABC |
SCQ MSEL VABS ABC |
N/A | No ATB or antifungal drugs 1 month prior sample collection | Dietary changes recorded | GIH Rome III |
| [64] | Yitik Tonkaz et al. | 2022 | Turkey | ASD: 30 SIB: 30 HC: 30 |
ASD: 86.7/11.3 SIB: 53.3/46.7 HC: 43.3/56.7 |
ASD: 7.3 SIB: 9.4 HC: 8.5 |
ASD: 17.7 SIB: 17.5 HC: 17.1 |
Psychiatric evaluation DAWBA DSM-5 CARS |
Psychiatric evaluation DAWBA |
−80 °C | No ATB or antifungal drugs 2 months prior sample collection, no probiotic or prebiotic prior sample collection | Yes Participants with special diets excluded |
GSI |
| ADHD | |||||||||||||
| [6] | Wang et al. | 2020 | Taiwan | ADHD: 30 HC: 30 |
ADHD: 76.7/23.3 HC: 60/40 |
ADHD: 8.4 HC: 9.3 |
N/A | K-SADS-E SNAP-IV WISC ADHD-RS |
K-SADS-E SNAP-IV WISC ADHD-RS |
−80 °C | Patients using ATB or probiotic excluded |
N/A Vegetarians excluded |
N/A |
| [17] | Aarts et al. | 2017 | Netherlands | ADHD: 19 HC: 77 |
ADHD: 68.4/31.6 HC: 53.2/46.8 |
ADHD: 19.5 HC: 27.1 |
ADHD: 23.8 HC: 23.0 |
DSM-4 K-SADS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB or other medication 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | N/A |
| [77] | Wan et al. | 2020 | China | ADHD: 17 HC: 17 |
ADHD: 82.3/17.7 HC: 76.5/23.5 |
Median age ADHD: 8 HC: 8 |
ADHD: 16.1 HC: 15.9 |
K-SADS CPRS | K-SADS CPRS |
−80 °C | No probiotic 1 month prior sample collection N/A for ATB use |
yes Participants with special diets excluded |
N/A |
| [78] | Jiang et al. | 2018 | China | ADHD: 51 HC: 32 |
ADHD: 49/51 HC: 68/32 |
ADHD: 8.5 HC: 8.5 |
ADHD: 16.4 HC: 16.1 |
K-SADS-PL CPRS | Clinical interview CPRS |
−80 °C | No ATB and probiotic for 2 month prior sample collection or concurrent use or history of ADHD drugs | yes Vegetarians excluded |
N/A |
| [79] | Szopinska-Tokov et al. | 2020 | Netherlands | ADHD: 41 HC: 47 |
ADHD: 63/37 Ctrl: 49/51 |
ADHD: 20.2 HC: 20.5 |
Median BMI ADHD: 23 HC: 22 |
K-SADS CTRS CAARS |
N/A | −80 °C | 19 patients using ADHD medication | N/A | N/A |
| [80] | Wang et al. | 2022 | Taiwan | ADHD: 41 HC: 39 |
ADHD: 73.2/26.8 HC: 56.4/43.6 |
ADHD: 8 HC: 10 |
ADHD: 17.5 HC: 17.8 |
K-SADS-E WISC-IV Conners‘ CPT SNAP-IV |
K-SADS-E | −80 °C | No AIDs, ATB or probiotic 1 month prior sample collection, no history of ADHD medication |
Vegetarians excluded | N/A |
| [81] | Prehn-Kristensen et al. | 2018 | Germany | ADHD: 14 HC: 17 |
ADHD: 100/0 HC: 100/0 |
ADHD: 11.9 HC: 13.1 |
ADHD: 19.0 HC: 18.0 |
K-SADS-PL CBCL FBB-HKS |
K-SADS-PL CBCL FBB-HKS |
Not clear | 10 patients using ADHD medication for more than 1 year, 9 of them discontinued 48h prior sample collection |
yes | N/A |
| Rett syndrome | |||||||||||||
| [88] | Strati et al. | 2016 | Italy | RTT: 50 HC: 29 |
RTT: 0/100 HC: N/A |
RTT: 12 HC: 17 |
N/A | Genetic testing CSS |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic or prebiotic 3 months prior sample collection | All participants under Mediterranean-based diet | Rome III |
| Anorexia Nervosa | |||||||||||||
| [92] | Schulz et al. | 2020 | Germany | AN: 19 HC: 20 |
AN: 0/100 HC: 0/100 |
AN: 15.77 HC: 16.35 |
AN: 15.8 HC: 20.3 |
DSM-5 EDI BDI SCAS EDE |
EDI BDI SCAS |
−80 °C | No ATB or probiotic 1 month prior sample collection, other medication recorded | N/A | N/A |
| Depressive Disorder | |||||||||||||
| [18] | Thapa et al. | 2021 | USA | MDD: 110 HC: 27 PC: 10 |
MDD: 35/65 HC: 63/37 PC: 57/43 |
MDD: 19.5 HC: 20.3 PC: 19.1 |
N/A | IDS, BDI-II BAI DSM-IV-TR A-LIFE |
N/A | −80 °C | No ATB 6 months prior sample collection | N/A | N/A |
| [94] | Ling et al. | 2022 | China | MDD: 92 HC: 48 |
MDD: 45.7/54.3 HC: 45.8/54.2 |
MDD: 8.84 HC: 9.27 |
MDD: 21.9 HC: 21.3 |
HAMD DSM-5 CCMD-3 |
HAMD | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic, prebiotic, synbiotic or psychiatric drugs 1 month prior sample collection | yes | N/A |
| [95] | Zhou et al. | 2022 | China | DD: 70 HC: 101 |
DD: 37.8/62.2 HC: 46.6/53.4 |
D: 13.7 HC: 13.5 |
D: 19.6 HC: 19.9 |
ICD-10 Mini-International Neuropsych. Interview SDS SAS |
Clinical interview |
−80 °C | No AIDs, ATB, probiotic, prebiotic or synbiotic 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | Bristol stool scale GSRS |
| Tic Disorder | |||||||||||||
| [102] | Wang et al. | 2022 | China | TD: 28 HC 21 |
TD: 60.7/39.3 HC: 61.9/38.1 |
TD: 8.2 HC: 7.9 |
TD: 19.3 HC: 18.8 |
DSM-5 Expert Consensus on Diagnosis and Treatment of TD in China |
No psychiatric disorder No physical illness |
−80 °C | No GCs, ISs and AHs 15 days prior sample collection No ATB and probiotic 2 months prior sample collection |
N/A | N/A |
| [103] | Xi et al. | 2021 | China | TD: 49 HC: 50 |
TD: 77.6/22.4 HC: 78/22 |
TD: 8.84 HC: 8.78 |
TD: 18.3 HC: matched |
DSM-5 YGTSS |
No psychiatric disorder | −80 °C | No ATB, probiotic, vitamins, IMs 1 month prior sample collection | N/A | GSI |
A-LIFE—Adolescents Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation. ABC—Aberrant Behavior Checklist. ABC—Autism Behavior Checklist. ABC-I—Aberrant Behavior Checklist Irritability subscale score. ADHD-RS—ADHD Rating Scale. ADI-R—Autism Diagnostics Interview—Revised. ADOS—Autism Diagnostics Observation Schedule. AIDs—anti-inflammatory drugs. AHs—antihistamines. AMSE—Autism Mental Status Exam. APs—Antipsychotics. AQ-10—Autism Spectrum Quotient, 10-item parent report version. ASD—Autism Spectrum Disorder. ASSQ—Autism spectrum screening questionnaire. ATEC—Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist. BAI—Beck Anxiety Inventory. BDI—Beck Depression Inventory-II. CAARS—Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales. CABS—Clancy Autism Behavior Scale. CARS—Childhood Autism Rating Scale. CGI-S—Clinical Global Impression Severity of Illness scale. CBCL—Child Behavior Checklist. CCMD-3—Chinese Classification of Mental Disorder. Conners‘ CPT—Conners Continuous Performance Test. CPRS—Conners Parent Rating Scales. CSS—Clinical Severity Score. CTRS—Conners Teacher Rating Scale. DAWBA—Development and Well-Being Assessment. DSM-4—Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—4th Edition. DSM-4-TR—Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—4th Edition, Text Revision. DSM-5—Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—5th Edition. EDE—Eating Disorder Examination. EDE-Q—Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. EDI—Eating Disorder Inventory 2. FBB-HKS—German ADHD rating scale for children. FGID questionnaire—Functional Gastrointestinal Disorder questionnaire. GCs—glucocorticoids. GDS—Gesell Developmental Scale. GHQ—Gastrointestinal Health Questionnaire. GIH—GI history survey. GMDS—Griffiths Mental Development Scales. GSI—Gastrointestinal Severity Index. GSRS—Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale. HAMD—Hamilton Depression Scale. HC—non-related healthy controls. ICD-10—International Statistics Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision. ICD-11—International Statistics Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems, 11th Revision. IDS—Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology. IMs—immunomodulators. INDT-ASD—INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for Autism Spectrum Disorder. ISAA—Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism. ISs—Immunosupressants. IQ/DQ—Intelligent Quotient and Developmental Quotient. K-SADS—Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. K-SADS-PL—Kiddie SADS—Present and Lifetime Version. MSEL—Mullen Scales of Early Learning. NSAI—Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. PC—Psychiatric Controls. PDD-BI—Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory. PDDBI-SV—Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory Screening Version. PDD-NOS—Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. QPGS—RIII—Pediatric Rome III Version. ROME III Diagnostic Questionnaire for the Paediatric Functional GI Disorders. R4PDQ—Rome IV Diagnostic Questionnaires for Paediatric Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: Parent-report Form for Children. SAS—Self-Rating Anxiety Scale. SCAS—Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale. SDS—Self-Rating Depression Scale. SCQ—Social Communication Questionnaire. SIB—siblings. SNAP-IV—Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Version IV Scale. SRS—Social Responsiveness Scale. SRS-2—Social Responsiveness Scale second edition. SSC—Simon Simplex Medical History. VABS—Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. WISC—Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. YAQ—Youth and Adolescence Food Frequency questionnaire. YGTSS—Yale Global Tic Severity Sc. † HC mostly consisted of sibling or blood relatives of ASD children. If period of medication use is not mentioned, this was not precised in the original article.