Table 1.
Occurrence of aflatoxins in cereals and cereal-based products around the world.
| Food Matrix | Country | No. of Samples | Aflatoxin | Range (μg/kg) | Limit of Detection (LOD, μg/kg) | Detection Technique | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barley-based products | Mediterranean area |
1/4 | AFB1 | 24 | 0.25 | LC-MS/MS | [41] |
| Corn | Burkina Faso and Mozambique | 13/26 | AFB1 | 3.4–636 | 3.0 | LC-MS/MS | [42] |
| Burkina Faso and Mozambique | 4/26 | AFB2 | 7.4–46.3 | 6.0 | LC-MS/MS | [42] | |
| India | 28/150 | AFB1 | 48–383 | 3.9 | HPLC | [43] | |
| Tanzania | 60 | AFB1 | 3–1081 | 0.6 | UPLC/TOFMS | [44] | |
| Tanzania | 60 | AFB2 | 12–177 | 0.4 | UPLC/TOFMS | [44] | |
| Zimbabwe | 95 | AFB1 | 0–11 | 3.75 | LC-MS/MS | [45] | |
| Zimbabwe | 95 | AFB1 | 0–3 | 1.75 | LC-MS/MS | [45] | |
| Zimbabwe | 80/388 | AFB1 | 0.57–26.6 | 0.005 | HPLC | [46] | |
| China | 108 | AFB1 | 0.4–136.8 | 0.1 | HPLC | [47] | |
| Corn ingredients | Costa Rica | 108/970 | Total AFs | 0–290.4 | 0.01 & 3 | ELISA and HPLC | [48] |
| Corn flour | Iran | 30 | AFB1 | 6.25–1060 | 2 | UHPLC–MS/MS | [49] |
| Corn-based opaque beers | South Africa | 2/32 | AFB1 | 0–7 | 2.5 | LC-MS | [50] |
| Corn | Africa | 233 | AFB1 | 19.2–1137.4 | NA | ELISA | [51] |
| Colombia | 3/20 | Total AFs | 8.2–585.9 | 5 | LC-MS/MS | [52] | |
| Turkey | 38/1055 | Total AFs | 7.96–163.62 | 5 | LC-MS/MS | [53] | |
| Ethiopia | NA | Total AFs | 20–91.04 | NA | HPLC | [54] | |
| Brazil | 38/148 | Total AFs | 0.4–49.9 | NA | LC-MS/MS | [55] | |
| South Korea | 507 | AFB1 | 1–5.2 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [56] | |
| Vietnam | 1486/2370 | AFB1 | 2–5 | 34.8 | ELISA | [57] | |
| Niger and Benin | 112 | Total AFs | 0–3000 | NA | ELISA | [58] | |
| China | 44 | AFB1 | 0–148.4 | 1 | HPLC | [59] | |
| Pakistan | 72 | Total AFs | 0.5–10 | 0.5 | HPLC | [60] | |
| Ghana | 326 | Total AFs | 0–341 | 0.1 | TLC | [61] | |
| Peru | 82 | Total AFs | 1–17 | 0.4 | LC-MS/MS | [62] | |
| Uganda | 256 | Total AFs | 0–3760 | NA | HPLC | [63] | |
| Togo | 70 | AFB1 | 1.1–75.9 | 0.08 | HPLC | [64] | |
| Ghana | 70/90 | AFB1 | 0.78–339.3 | 0.13 | HPLC | [65] | |
| Corn flour | Serbia | 27/56 | Total AFs | 1–9.14 | 0.4 | HPLC-FD | [66] |
| Corn flour | Turkey | 24 | AFB1 | 0.041–1.12 | 0.026 | HPLC | [67] |
| Corn bran | Uganda | 40 | Total AFs | 7.5–393.5 | 1 | HPLC | [68] |
| Corn bran | Tanzania | 340 | Total AFs | 9.4–16.8 | NA | ELISA | [69] |
| Pearl millet | South Korea | 507 | AFB1 | 1–1.1 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [56] |
| Pearl millet | Kenya | 86 | AFB1 | 0.4–5.6 | NA | ELISA | [51] |
| Pearl millet | Tunisia | 220 | AFB1 | 117–1046 | 0.24 | LC-MS/MS | [70] |
| Pearl millet | Tunisia | 220 | AFB2 | 0–96.1 | 0.40 | LC-MS/MS | [70] |
| Rice | China | 29 | AFB1 | 0.1–1.4 | 0.1 | HPLC | [47] |
| Pakistan | 88/120 | Total AFs | 1.18–11.46 | 0.4 | TLC | [71] | |
| Pakistan | 100/120 | Total AFs | 0.21–11.89 | 0.142 | HPLC | [71] | |
| Pakistan | 104/120 | Total AFs | 0.10–12.39 | 0.092 | LC–MS/MS | [71] | |
| Pakistan | 88/120 | Total AFs | 1.24–11.68 | 1.0 | ELISA | [71] | |
| Nigeria | 38 | AFB1 | 3.7–20.2 | 0.15 | LC-MS/MS | [72] | |
| Nigeria | 38 | AFB2 | 1.62–6.11 | 0.2 | LC-MS/MS | [72] | |
| Nigeria | 38 | AFG1 | 3.76–7.21 | 0.2 | LC-MS/MS | [72] | |
| Iran | 40 | AFB1 | 0.29–2.92 | NA | ELISA | [73] | |
| China | 235/370 | AFB1 | 0.03–20 | 0.65 | HPLC | [74] | |
| China | 235/370 | AFB1 | 0.0–1.6 | 0.15 | HPLC | [74] | |
| Pakistan | 2047 | AFB1 | 1.17–6.91 | 1 | TLC | [75] | |
| Bangladesh | 227 | AFB1 | 0–0.9 | 0.2 | HPLC | [76] | |
| Thailand | 240 | AFB1 | 1.43–26.61 | 0.093 | HPLC-FD | [77] | |
| India | 2/87 | Total AFs | 21.58–22.98 | NA | TLC | [78] | |
| Egypt | 51 | AFB1 | 100–200 | NA | TLC | [79] | |
| Colombia | 3/24 | Total AFs | 0.2–23.9 | 5 | LC-MS/MS | [52] | |
| South Korea | 507 | AFB1 | 1–1.1 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [56] | |
| Mediterranean area |
2/100 | AFB1 | 26.0–33.0 | 0.25 | LC-MS/MS | [41] | |
| Mediterranean area |
1/100 | AFB2 | 7.5 | 1.5 | LC-MS/MS | [41] | |
| Rice flour | Serbia | 2/6 | Total AFs | 1.59–4.76 | 0.4 | HPLC-FD | [66] |
| Rice flour | Turkey | 16 | AFB1 | 0–0.029 | 0.026 | HPLC | [67] |
| Rice-based baby foods | Iran | 27/30 | AFB1 | 0–15.15 | 0.025 | HPLC-FD | [80] |
| Sorghum | Africa | 53 | AFB1 | 11.9–23.1 | NA | ELISA | [51] |
| Ethiopia | 90 | AFB1 | 0–33.10 | 0.01–0.03 | ELISA | [81] | |
| Nigeria | 19/35 | Total AFs | 0.96-21.74 | 1 | TLC | [82] | |
| India | 15/21 | AFB1 | 0.005–0.02 | NA | TLC | [83] | |
| India | 3/21 | AFB2 | 0–0.005 | NA | TLC | [83] | |
| South Korea | 507 | AFB1 | 0.7–1.7 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [56] | |
| Sorghum malt (Omalodu) | Namibia | 45 | AFB1 | 0.61–28.3 | 0.17 | LC/MS/MS | [84] |
| Namibia | 45 | AFB2 | 0.14–2.35 | 0.04 | LC/MS/MS | [84] | |
| Namibia | 45 | AFG1 | 0.39–6.95 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [84] | |
| Burkina Faso | 20 | AFB1 | 46.33–254.73 | 0.2 | HPLC | [85] | |
| Sorghum malt (Otambo) | Namibia | 45 | AFB1 | 0.56–54.2 | 0.17 | LC/MS/MS | [84] |
| Namibia | 45 | AFB2 | 0.5–4.48 | 0.04 | LC/MS/MS | [84] | |
| Sorghum beer | Namibia | 45 | AFG1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | LC/MS/MS | [84] |
| Sorghum-based products | Mediterranean area |
1/4 | AFB1 | 0–6.4 | 0.25 | LC-MS/MS | [41] |
| Wheat | Brazil | 35 | Total AFs | 0–6.2 | 5.0 | HPLC-FD | [86] |
| Spain | 14/60 | AFB1 | 1.03–9.50 | 0.08 | LC-MS/MS | [87] | |
| Spain | 19/60 | AFB2 | 0.34–0.67 | 0.08 | LC-MS/MS | [87] | |
| Spain | 6/60 | AFG1 | 0.53–1.05 | 0.16 | LC-MS/MS | [87] | |
| China | 21/32 | AFB1 | 0.03–0.12 | 0.03-0.2 | LC-MS/MS | [88] | |
| Egypt | 36 | AFB1 | 0.13–49.79 | 0.04 | HPLC | [89] | |
| Egypt | 36 | AFB2 | 0.09–2.96 | 0.12 | HPLC | [89] | |
| Turkey | 141 | Total AFs | 0.21–0.44 | 0.026 | HPLC-FD | [90] | |
| Iran | 4/16 | AFB1 | 0–1.8 | 3 | HPLC-FD | [80] | |
| Bangladesh | 227 | AFB1 | 0.9–1.6 | 0.2 | HPLC | [76] | |
| Mediterranean area |
3/21 | AFB2 | 6.7–26.0 | 1.50 | LC-MS/MS | [41] | |
| Wheat-based products | Mediterranean area |
10/65 | AFB1 | 5.5–66.7 | 0.25 | LC-MS/MS | [41] |
| Mediterranean area |
2/65 | AFB2 | 5.6–7.6 | 1.5 | LC-MS/MS | [41] | |
| Wheat-based baby foods | Iran | 4/16 | AFB1 | 0–1.8 | 3 | HPLC-FD | [80] |
| Multigrain-cereal baby foods | Iran | 2/2 | AFB1 | 1.03–2.50 | 3 | HPLC-FD | [80] |
| Wheat bran | Brazil | 32 | Total AFs | 4.8 | 5.0 | HPLC-FD | [86] |
| Wheat flour | Iran | 144/180 | Total AFs | 0.01–0.5 | 0.003 | HPLC | [91] |
| Wheat flour | Turkey | 60 | AFB1 | 0–0.044 | 0.026 | HPLC | [67] |
| Wheat flour | China | 108 | AFB1 | 0.1–0.9 | 0.1 | HPLC | [47] |
| Wheat flour (whole) | Brazil | 16 | Total AFs | 3.4 | 5.0 | HPLC-FD | [86] |
| Wheat flour (refined) | Brazil | 15 | Total AFs | 1.2 | 5.0 | HPLC-FD | [86] |
| Wheat bran | Iran | 54/60 | Total AFs | 0.06–0.99 | 0.01 | HPLC | [91] |
HPLC-FLD: high-performance liquid chromatography–fluorescence detector; DLLME-HPLC: dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection; TLC: thin-layer chromatography; UHPLC/TOFMS: ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; LC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry; AFB1: aflatoxin B1; AFB2: aflatoxin B2; Total AFs: aflatoxins (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2).