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. 2022 Oct 20;12(10):997. doi: 10.3390/metabo12100997

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Pyroglutamic acid could promote inflammation and increase DNA damage in IEC-6 cells. (A) The mRNA levels of IL-6 detected by QPCR. (B) The mRNA levels of TNF-α detected by QPCR. (C) The mRNA levels of IL-1β detected by QPCR. (D) Representative images of γH2AX immunofluorescence staining. Image sizes are annotated by the scale bar in the lower right corner of the respective image. (E) Immunofluorescence histograms showing γH2AX foci per cell. (F,G) Comet assay and histograms showing %DNA in the tail. (H) Western blot of γH2AX. Data are presented as the means ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, ns not significant vs. control group.